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Tuscarora Indian
Ethnology
Ethnology. The Tuscarora
in New York are governed by a council of irresponsible chiefs, for the
Indians have forgotten and so neglect the means to be employed in
enforcing the will of the clan in case a chief fails in his plain duty;
the criminal law of New York at this point nullifies the early sovereignty
of the clan over its members. In common with the other tribes of the
Iroquoian linguistic stock, the Tuscarora traced the descent of blood
through the line of the mother, and made the civil and official military
chieftainships hereditary in the ohwatcira of certain clans (see
Clans) over which the woman
chiefs and the elder women presided. The simplest political unit was the
ohwatcira, of which one or more constituted a clan. which was the
simplest organized political unit. The Tuscarora were constituted of at
least eight clans, which primitively were organized into phratries. There
are no data, other than those furnished by tradition and analogy, as to
the organization of the Tuscarora confederation. The clans were exogamic
as to their own members, as were also the phratries in primitive times.
The Tuscarora of New York being completely isolated from any of their own
people who still profess their ancient dogmas and beliefs and who still
practice their ancient rites and ceremonies, have preserved only a hazy
recollection of their early customs, ceremonies, and rites; even less do
they comprehend the meaning of the ceremonies still practiced by the
so-called pagan members of cognate tribes. They are all professed
Christians, and so turn away from the old forms of thought and practice of
their ancestors.
The exact number of clans still existing among the
Tuscarora is not definitely known, for the native authorities themselves
do not agree on the number and the names of those still recognized-some
informants give seven, while others with equal credibility give eight.
There is likewise some diversity in regard to the correct names of certain
clans. One list has Bear, Wolf, Turtle, Beaver, Deer, Eel, and Snipe;
another has Bear, Eel, Large Turtle, Small Turtle, Beaver, Deer, Wolf, and
Snipe; still another list has Bear, Eel, Deer, Turtle, Gray Wolf, Yellow
Wolf, Beaver, and Snipe; and yet another is like the last, except that the
Turtle clan is replaced by the clans Small Turtle and Large Turtle. Like
differences appear in the lists of clans of the other Iroquois tribes.
The names of the civil chiefs still in use among the
present two divisions of the Tuscarora (that in Ontario and the other in
west New York) are:
(A) Säkwari’'çrä
(Sacharissa), 'The spear trailer'
Ni`hawěñna’'ǎ‘,
'His voice is small'
Hotio`kwawǎ'kěn‘,
'He holds or grasps the multitude,' or possibly, 'He holds or grasps his
own loins'; these three belong to the Turtle clan.
(B) Näkäiěñ''těn'
(signification not clear); Utäkwä‘kwǎ‘těn’ǎ‘,
'The Bear cub' Ioněñtchāněñ’'nǎkěn‘,
'Its fore-paw pressed against its breast'; these three belong to the Bear
clan.
(C) Nāio`kāwe’'ǎ‘
(signification not known)
Neiotchǎ'k'doñ‘,
'It is bent'; these two belong to the Wolf clan.
(D) Karoñdawǎ’'kěn‘,
'One is holding the tree'
Thanädǎk'hwǎ’
(signification not clear); these two belong to the Snipe clan.
(E) Kari`hěn'tiä’,
'It goes along teaching'
Ni`hno`ka'wä’, 'He annoints the hide'
Näkǎ`hěñwǎ‘'ç‘hěñ,
`It is twenty canoes' ; these three belong to the Beaver clan.
Among the Canadian Tuscarora on Grand River
reservations, Ontario, the first and last names of the Turtle clan, the
first title of the Wolf clan, and the first title of the Snipe clan appear
to be the only ones now in use, although these four titles are
questionably also in use among the New York Tuscarora.
There is no definite information available as to the
former and more complete organization into clan phratries. Some of the
translations of the chieftain titles above would seem to indicate that
they were originally designations of some habit, attitude, or other
characteristic feature of the clan tutelary or patron, questionably called
"totem". The clan name, with one or two exceptions, is not the ordinary
name of the clan guardian or patron, but is rather descriptive of some
feature or attitude, or is the name of the usual habitat, of the tutelary;
for example, the name of the Bear clan signifies literally, 'Broken-off
tail'; that of the Plover or Killdee (Snipe), 'Clean-sand people'; that of
the Beaver, 'People of the stream'; that of the Turtle clan,
'Climbing-the-mountain people,' named from the position of the turtle
basking; etc. It is probable that plover or killdee should be substituted
in the foregoing lists of clans, for the name clearly refers to the
killdee's habit of running along the clean sand at the water's edge.
De Graffenried gives (N. C. Col. Rec., i, 905 et
seq.) an interesting account of the preparations made for the execution of
Lawson and himself by the hostile Tuscarora. In the open space or public
square mentioned there was a large fire, near which was the shaman or high
priest, a grizzled sorcerer, who made two white rings on the ground,
whether of flour or white sand was not stated. In front of the two victims
was placed a wolf skin, and a short distance farther there stood an Indian
in a terrifying posture, holding in one hand a knife and in the other a
tomahawk; he was apparently the executioner. He did not move from the
spot. On the farther side of the fire were assembled young men, women, and
children, who danced with weird and frightful contortions and attitudes.
In the center of the circle of dancers were seated two singers who intoned
a dismal song, "rather fit to provoke tears and anger than joy." Within
the circle of dancers the shaman stood unterrified, uttering his
threatenings and adjurations and performing his exorcisms, against the
foes of his people and their orenda or "medicine," when there would
come a pause in the dancing. Finally, with shouts and howls the dancers
ran into the neighboring forest. In a short time they returned with their
faces painted black, white, and red, in bands, and with their hair loose
and flying, oiled and sprinkled with fine down or cotton from the cattail
flag and with small white feathers, and some returned arrayed in all kinds
of furs. After their return, the dance was renewed. Back of the two
victims stood a double line of armed warriors who kept their posts until
everything was over; back of this guard was the council of war, whose
members were seated on the ground in a circle, gravely deliberating on the
fate of the two noted prisoners. Finally, they acted on the advice of
"King" Tom Blunt, the head chief of their neighbors, "the villages of the
Tuscaroros," properly so called, that King Hencock should liberate De
Graffenried, and could deal with Lawson as he and his council pleased. The
manner of Lawson's death, as learned from Indian information, is found in
a letter of Maj. Christopher Gale to his brother, Nov. 2, 1711, wherein it
is said that the Indians stuck the unfortunate prisoner "full of fine
small splinters of torchwood, like hogs' bristles, and so set them
gradually on fire." De Graffenried was not permitted to know how Lawson
was executed.
To this account of the Tuscarora method of preparing
for the execution of captives may be added their triumphal ceremonies
which De Graffenried says they performed after their defeat of a relief
party of Swiss and Palatines. He reports that they built bonfires at
night, and especially a large one in the place of executions, where they
raised "three wolf's hides, figuring as many protectors or gods," to which
offerings, consisting of their jewels, were made by the women. In the
middle of the circle, the chief shaman performed all manner of
contortions, conjurations, and imprecations against the enemies of his
country, while the populace danced in a circle around the wolf-hides.
The council of "King" Hencock, which consisted of 40
elders, was called by the Tuscarora, according to De Graffenried, the
"Assembly of the Great," a translation of the Tuscarora terms for the
council of chiefs, the general word for chief signifying 'one is great,
either in size or position. At the council before which Lawson and De
Graffenried were tried the "forty elders" were seated around a great fire
kindled in a large open space devoted to important festivals and public
executions. On this occasion these chiefs and the accused were seated on
rush mats, which were customarily provided for the comfort of guests as a
mark of deference and honor. Although the two captives were acquitted by
the first council, they were again tried before a second council, after
Lawson incautiously had had a bitter quarrel with Cor Tom, the chief of
Cor town, who was not at the first council. The two captives were not
given mats upon which to sit, and Lawson was condemned to death and De
Graffenried was acquitted.
Lawson asserts that the most powerful tribe "scorns to
treat or trade with any others, of fewer numbers and less power in any
other tongue but their own, which serves for the lingua of the country;
with which we travel and deal." As an example of this, the Tuscarora are
cited. Being the most numerous tribe in North Carolina, their language was
necessarily understood by some persons in every town of all the
neighboring tribes.
The Tuscarora carried on a pernicious trade in rum with
the Indians dwelling
to their westward. In 1708 rum had been but recently introduced. among the
latter, chiefly by the Tuscarora, who transported it in rundlets several
hundred miles, amongst other Indians. They sold it at "so many mouthfuls
for a buckskin, they never using any other measure," the buyer always
choosing a man having the largest mouth possible to accompany him to the
market, and the mouthful was scrupulously emptied into a bowl brought for
the purpose. The Tuscarora also traded with the Shakori and Occaneechi,
selling them wooden bowls and ladles for rawhides.
Their lodges, usually round in form, were constructed of poles, covered
with the bark of cypress, red or white cedar, or sometimes pine. Atone
place Lawson met more than 500 Tuscarora in one body in a hunting camp.
They had constructed their lodges with bark, "not with round tops, as they
commonly use, but ridge fashion, after the manner of most Indians." Among
them he found much corn, while meat and venison were scarce, because of
the great number of people, for although they were expert hunters, they
were too populous for one range.
According to Lawson, the native Tuscarora of North
Carolina had rather flat bodies, due probably to the fact that in early
infancy the children were swathed to cradle-boards. He adds: "They are not
of so robust and strong bodies as to lift great burdens, and endure labor
and slavish work, as Europeans are; yet some that are slaves prove very
good and laborious." They were dextrous and steady, and collected in the
use of their hands and feet; their bearing was sedate and majestic; their
eyes were commonly full and manly, being black or dark hazel in color, and
the white of the eye was usually marbled with red lines; their skin was
tawny, and somewhat darkened by the habit of anointing it with bear's oil
and a pigment resembling burnt cork. When they wished to be very fine they
mixed with the oil a certain red powder made from a scarlet root growing
in the hilly country. This ,root was held in great esteem among them,
selling it one to another at a very high price, on account of the distance
from which it came and the danger to which they were exposed in obtaining
it. The Tuscarora and other Indians attempted to cultivate this plant, but
it would not grow in their land. As a substitute they sometimes used
puccoon root, which also has a crimson color, but this dyed the hair an
ugly hue. The heads even of the aged were scarcely ever bald; their teeth
were tinged Yellow from smoking tobacco, to which habit both men and women
were much addicted; they however did not snuff or chew tobacco. They
plucked the hair from their faces and bodies. There were but few deformed
or crippled persons among them.
The Tuscarora had many dances suitable to various
occasions; these as a rule were accompanied with public feasts prepared
under the direction of the women chiefs. Every dance had its peculiar
song, but probably was not changed for every occasion on which the dance
was performed, although Lawson states that "all these songs are made new
for every feast; nor is one and the same song sung at two several
festivals. Some one of the nation, which has the best gift of expressing
their designs, is appointed by their king and war captains to make these
songs." To these festivals the people came from all the towns within 50 or
60 miles, "where they buy and sell several commodities."
The Tuscarora, in like measure with the northern
Iroquois, were passionately given to gaining, frequently stripping one
another of every piece of property available. Sometimes they went even so
far as to bet themselves away to the winner, readily becoming his slave
until he or his relatives could pay the redemption price; nevertheless
they bore their losses with great equanimity, no matter how ruinous they
were. Among their games was that of a bundle of 51 split reeds about 7 in.
in length and neatly made. The game consisted in throwing a part of the
bundle before an opponent, who must on sight guess the number thrown. It
is said that experts were able to tell the number correctly ten times in
ten throws. A set of these reeds was valued at a dressed doe skin. The
Tuscarora also had the well known bowl and plum-seed game, which is such
an important adjunct to the thanksgiving festivals of the northern
Iroquois. They also had a number of other games, but some of their
neighbors had games which they did not have.
There were feasts among the Tuscarora when several
villages united to celebrate some event or when two or more tribes
assembled to negotiate peace. There were feasts and dances of
thanksgiving, and invocations to the gods that watched over their
harvests, when their crops were garnered and when the first fruits of the
year were gathered.
The books presented are for their
historical value only and are not the
opinions of the Webmasters of the site.
Handbook
of American Indians, 1906
Index of Tribes or Nations
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