Seneca ('place of the stone,' the
Anglicized form of the Dutch enunciation of the Mohegan rendering of the
Iroquoian ethnic appellative Oneida, or, strictly, Oněñiute'ā'kā',
and with a different ethnic suffix, (Oněñriute'roñ'non',
meaning 'people of the standing or projecting rock or stone')
A prominent and influential tribe of the Iroquois (q.
v.). When first known they occupied that part of west New York between
Seneca lake and Geneva river, having their council fire at Tsonontowan,
near Naples, in Ontario county. After the political destruction of the
Erie and Neuters, about the middle of the seventeenth century, the Seneca
and other Iroquois people carried their settlements westward to Lake Erie
and southward along the Alleghany into Pennsylvania. They also received
into their tribe a portion of these conquered peoples, by which accessions
they became the largest tribe of the confederation and one of the most
important. They are now chiefly settled on the Allegany, Cattaraugus, and
Tonawanda reservations, N.Y. A portion of them remained under British
jurisdiction after the declaration of peace and live on Grand River
reservation, Ontario. Various local bands have been known as Buffalo,
Tonawanda, and Cornplanter Indians; and the Mingo, formerly in Ohio, have
become officially known as Seneca from the large number of that tribe
among them. No considerable number of the Seneca ever joined the Catholic
Iroquois colonies.
In the third quarter of the 16th century the
Seneca was the last but one of the Iroquois tribes to give its suffrage in
favor of the abolition of murder and war, the suppression of cannibalism,
and the establishment of the principles upon which the League of the
Iroquois was founded. However, a large division of the tribe did not adopt
at once the course of the main body, but, on obtaining coveted privileges
and prerogatives, the recalcitrant body was admitted as a constituent
member in the structure of the League. The two chiefships last added to
the quota of the Seneca were admitted on condition of their exercising
functions belonging to a sergeant-at-arms of a modern legislative body as
well as those belonging to a modern secretary of state for foreign
affairs, in addition to their duties as federal chieftains; indeed, they
became the warders of the famous "Great Black Doorway" of the League of
the Iroquois, called Ka'nho'hwǎdji)'gō'nǎ'
by the Onondaga.
One of the earliest known references to the ethnic name
Seneca is that on the Original Carte Figurative, annexed to the Memorial
presented to the States-General of the Netherlands, Aug. 18, 1616, on
which it appears with the Dutch plural as Sennecas. This map is remarkable
also for the first known mention of the ancient
Erie, sometimes called Gahkwas or Kahkwah; on this map they appear under
the name last cited, Gachoi (cli = kh), and were placed on the
north side of the west branch of the Susquehanna. The name did not
originally belong to the Seneca, but to the Oneida, as the following lines
will show.
In the early part of Dec. 1634, Arent Van Curler (or
Corlaer), the commissary or factor of the Manor of Rensselaerwyck (his
uncle's estate), set out from Ft Orange, now Albany, N. Y., in the
interest of the fur-trade, to visit the Mohawk and the Sinnekens. Strictly
speaking, the latter name designated the Oneida, but at this time it was a
general name, usually comprising the Onondaga, the Canuga, and the Seneca,
in addition. At that period the Dutch and the French commonly divided the
Five Iroquois tribes into two identical groups; to the first, the Dutch
gave the name Maquas (Mohawk), and to the latter, Sinnekens (Seneca, the
final-ens being the Dutch genitive plural), with the connotation of
the four tribes mentioned above. The French gave to the latter group the
general name "les Iroquois Superieurs", "les Hiroquoisd'en haut", i. e.
the Upper Iroquois, ''les Hiroquois des pays plus hauts, nommés
Sontouaheronnons" (literally, 'the Iroquois of the upper country, called
Sontouaheronnons' ), the latter being only another form of "les
Tsonnontouans" (the Seneca); and to the first group the designations "les
Iroquois inférieurs" (the Lower
Iroquois), and "les Hiroquois d'en bas, nommes Agnechronnons" (the Mohawk;
literally, 'the Iroquois from below, named Agnechronnons' ). This
geographical rather than political division of the Iroquois tribes, first
made by Champlain and the early Dutch at Ft Orange, prevailed until about
the third quarter of the 17th century.
Indeed, Governor Andros, two years after Greenhalgh's
visit to the several tribes of the Iroquois in 1677, still wrote, "Ye
Oneidas deemed ye first nation of sineques." The Journal of Van Curler,
mentioned above, records the interesting fact that during his visit to the
tribes he celebrated the New Year of 1635 at a place called
Enneyuttehage or Sinnekens. The first of these names was the
Iroquois, and the second, the Mohegan, name for the place, or, preferably,
the Mohegan translation of the Iroquois name. The Dutch received their
first knowledge of the Iroquois tribes through the Mohegan. The name
Enneyuttehaye is evidently written for Oněñiute'agā’'ge‘,
'at the place of the people of the standing (projecting) stone.' At that
date this was the chief town of the Oneida. Van Curler's Journal
identifies the name Sinnekens with this town, which is presumptive
evidence that it is the Mohegan rendering of the Iroquois local name Oněñ'iute',
'it is a standing or projecting stone', employed as an ethnic appellative.
The derivation of Sinnekens from Mohegan appears to be as follows:
a`sinni, 'a stone, or rock', -ika or -iga, denotive of
'place of', or 'abundance of', and the final -ens supplied by the
Dutch genitive plural ending, the whole Mohegan synthesis meaning 'place
of the standing stone'; and with a suitable pronominal affix, like o-
or wa-, which was not recorded by the Dutch writers, the translation
signifies, 'they are of the place of the standing stone.' This derivation
is confirmed by the Delaware name, W'tassone, for the Oneida, which
has a similar derivation. The initial w- represents approximately an
o-sound, and is the affix of verbs and nouns denotive of the third person;
the intercalary -t- is merely euphonic, being employed to prevent the
coalescence of the two vowel sounds; and it is evident that assone
is only another form of a`sinni, 'stone', cited above. Hence it
appears that the Mohegan and Delaware names for the Oneida are cognate in
derivation and identical in signification. Heckewelder erroneously
translated W'tassone by 'stone pipe makers.'
Thus, the Iroquois Oněñiute'ā'gǎ',
the Mohegan Sinnekens, and the Delaware W'tassone are
synonymous and are homologous in derivation. But the Dutch, followed by
other Europeans, used the Mohegan term to designate a group of four
tribes, to only one of which, the Oneida, was it strictly applicable. The
name Sinnekens, or Sennecaas (Visscher's map, ca. 1660),
became the tribal name of the Seneca by a process of elimination which
excluded from the group and from the connotation of the general name the
nearer tribes as each with its own proper native name became known to the
Europeans. Obviously, the last remaining tribe of the group would finally
acquire as its own the general name of the group. The Delaware name for
the Seneca was Meχaχtǐn'nǐ
(the Maechachtinni of Heckewelder), which signifies 'great
mountain'; this is, of course, a Delaware rendering of the Iroquois name
for the Seneca, Djiionoñdowāněñ‘'ākǎ’,
or Djiionoñdowāněñ‘'ākǎ̉',
'People of the Great Mountain.' This name appears disguised as
Trudemani (Cartier, 1534-35), Entouhonorons, Chouontouaroüon=Chonontouaronon
(Champlain, 1615), Ouentouaronens (Champlain, 1627), and
Tsonontouan or Sonoritouan (Jes. Rel., passim).
Previous to the defeat and despoliation of the Neuters
in 1651 and the Erie in 1656, the Seneca occupied the territory drained by
Genesee river, eastward to the lands of the Cayuga along the line of the
watershed between Seneca and Cayuga lakes.
The political history of the Seneca is largely that of
the League of the Iroquois, although owing to petty jealousies among the
various tribes the Seneca, like the others, sometimes acted independently
in their dealings with aliens. But their independent action appears never
to have been a serious and deliberate rupture of the bonds uniting them
with the federal government of the League, thus vindicating the wisdom and
foresight of its founders in permitting every tribe to retain and exercise
a large measure of autonomy in the structure of the federal government. It
was sometimes apparently imperative that one of the tribes should enter
into a treaty or other compact with its enemies, while the others might
still maintain a hostile attitude toward the alien contracting party.
During 1622 the Montagnais, the Algonkin, and the
Hurons sought to conclude peace with the Iroquois (Yroquois=Mohawk
division?), because "they were weary and fatigued with the wars which they
had had for more than 50 years." The armistice was concluded in 1624, but
was broken by the continued guerrilla warfare of the Algonkin warriors;
for this reason the Seneca ("Ouentouoronons d'autre nation, anis desdits
Yrocois") killed in the "village of the Yrocois" the embassy com posed of
a Frenchman, Pierre Magnan, and three Algonquian ambassadors. This
resulted in the renewal of the war. So in Sept. 1627, the Iroquois, in
eluding the Seneca, declared war against the Indians and the French on the
St Lawrence and its northern ailments by sending various parties of
warriors against them.
From the Jesuit Relation for 1635 (p. 34, 1858) it is
learned that the Seneca, after defeating the Hurons in the spring of 1634,
made peace with them. The Hurons in the following year sent an embassy to
Sonontouan, the chief town of the Seneca, to ratify the peace, and while
there learned that the Onondaga, the Oneida, the Cayuga, and the Mohawk
were desirous of becoming parties to the treaty.
In 1639 the war was renewed by the Hurons, who in May
captured 12 prisoners from the Seneca, then regarded as a powerful people.
The war continued with varying success. The Jesuit Relation for 1641 (p.
75, 1858) says the Seneca were the most feared of the enemies of the
Hurons, and that they were only one day's journey from Ongniaahra
(Niagara), the most easterly town of the Neuters. The Relation for 1643
(p. 61) says that the Seneca (i. e. "les Hiroquois d'en haut"), including
the Cayuga, the Oneida, and the Onondaga, equaled, if they did not exceed,
in number and power the Hurons, who previously had had this advantage; and
that the Mohawk at this time had three villages with 700 or 800 men of
arms who possessed 300 arquebuses that they had obtained from the Dutch
and which they used with skill and boldness. According to the Jesuit
Relation for 1648 (p. 49, 1858), 300 Seneca attacked the village of the
Aondironnons, and killed or captured as many of its inhabitants as
possible, although this people were a dependency of the Neuters who were
at peace with the Seneca at this time. This affront nearly precipitated
war between the Iroquois and the Neuters.
The Seneca warriors composed the larger part of the
Iroquois warriors who in 1648-49 assailed, destroyed, and dispersed the
Huron tribes; it was likewise they who in 1649 sacked the chief towns of
the Tionontati, or Tobacco tribe; and the Seneca also took a leading part
in the defeat and subjugation of the Neuters in 1651 and of the Erie in
1656. From the Journal des PP. Jésuites
for 1651-52 (Jes. Rel., Thwaites' ed., xxxvii, 97, 1898) it is learned
that in 1651 the Seneca, in waging war against the Neuters, had been so
signally defeated that their women and children were compelled to flee
from Sonontowan, their capital, to seek refuge among the neighboring
Cayuga.
In 1652 the Seneca were plotting with the Mohawk to
destroy and ruin the French settlements on the St Lawrence. Two years
later the Seneca sent an embassy to the French for the purpose of making
peace with them, a movement which was probably brought about by their
rupture with the Erie. But the Mohawk not desiring peace at that time with
the French, perhaps on account of their desire to attack the Hurons on
Orleans island, murdered two of the three Seneca ambassadors, the other
having remained as a hostage with the French. This act almost resulted in
war between the two hostile tribes; foreign affairs, however, were in such
condition as to prevent the beginning of actual hostility. On Sept. 19,
1655, Fathers Chaumonot and Dablon, after pressing invitations to do so,
started from Quebec to visit and view the Seneca country, and to establish
there a French habitation and teach the Seneca the articles of their
faith.
In 1657 the Seneca, in carrying out the policy of the
League to adopt conquered tribes upon submission and the expression of a
desire to live under the form of government established by the League, had
thus incorporated eleven different tribes into their body politic.
In 1652 Maryland bought from the Minqua, or Susquehanna
Indians, i. e. the Conestoga, all their land claims on both sides of
Chesapeake bay up to the mouth of Susquehanna river. In 1663, 800 Seneca
and Cayuga warriors from the Confederation of the Five Nations were
defeated by the Minqua, aided by the Marylanders. The Iroquois did not
terminate their hostilities until famine had so reduced the Conestoga that
in 1675, when the Marylanders had disagreed with them and had withdrawn
their alliance, the Conestoga were completely subdued by the Five Nations,
who thereafter claimed a right to the Minqua lands to the head of
Chesapeake bay.
In 1744 the influence of the French was rapidly gaining
ground among the Seneca; meanwhile the astute and persuasive Col. Johnson
was gradually winning the Mohawk as close allies of the British, while the
Onondaga, the Cayuga, and the Oneida, under strong pressure from
Pennsylvania and Virginia, sought to be neutral.
In 1686, 200 Seneca warriors went west against the
Miami, the Illinois in the meantime having been overcome by the Iroquois
in a war lasting about five years. In 1687 the Marquis Denonville
assembled a great horde of Indians from the region of the upper lakes and
from the St Lawrence Hurons, Ottawa, Chippewa, Missisauga, Miami,
Illinois, Montagnais, Amikwa, and others-under Durantaye, DuLuth, and
Tonti, to serve as an auxiliary force to about 1,200 French and colonial
levies, to be enrploved in attacking and destroying the Seneca. Having
reached Irondequoit, the Seneca landing-place on Lake Ontario, Denonville
built there a stockade in which he left a garrison of 440 men. Thence
advancing to attack the Seneca villages, he was ambushed by 600 or 800
Seneca, who charged and drove back the colonial levies and their Indian
allies, and threw the veteran regiments into disorder. Only by the
overwhelming numbers of his force was the traitorous Denonville saved from
disastrous defeat.
In 1763, at Bloody Run and the Devil's Hole,
situated on Niagara river about 4 miles below the falls, the Seneca
ambushed a British supply train on the portage road from Ft Schlosser to
Ft Niagara, only three escaping from a force of nearly 100. At a short
distance from this place the same Seneca ambushed a British force composed
of two companies of troops who were hastening to the aid of the supply
train, only eight of whom escaped massacre. These bloody and harsh
measures were the direct result of the general unrest of the Six Nations
and the western tribes, arising from the manner of the recent occupancy of
the posts by the British, after the surrender of Canada by the French on
Sept. 8, 1760. They contrasted the sympathetic and bountiful paternalism
of the French regime with the neglect and niggardliness that characterized
the British rule. Such was the state of affairs that on July 29, 1761, Sir
Wm. Johnson wrote to General Amherst: "I see plainly that there appears to
be an universal jealousy amongst every nation, on account of the hasty
steps they look upon we are taking towards getting possession of this
country, which measures, I am certain, will never subside whilst we
encroach within the limits which you may recollect have been put under the
protection of the King in the year 1726, and confirmed to them by him and
his successors ever since and by the orders sent to the governors not to
allow any one of his subjects settling thereon, but that it should remain
their absolute property." But, by the beginning of the American
Revolution, so well had the British agents reconciled them to the rule of
Great Britain that the Seneca, together with a large majority of the
people of the Six Nations, notwithstanding their pledges to the contrary,
reluctantly espoused the cause of the British against the colonies.
Consequently they suffered retribution for their folly when Gen. Sullivan,
in 1779, after defeating their warriors, burned their villages and
destroyed their crops.
There is no historical evidence that the Seneca who were on the Ohio and
the south shore of Lake Erie in the 18th and 19th centuries were chiefly
an outlying colony from the Iroquois tribe of that name dwelling in New
York. The significant fact that in historical times their affiliations
were never with the Iroquois, but rather with tribes usually hostile to
them, is to be explained on the presumption that they were rather some
remnant of a subjugated tribe dependent on the Seneca and dwelling on
lands under the jurisdiction of their conquerors. It is a fair inference
that they were largely subjugated Erie and Conestoga. Regarding the
identity of these Indians, the following citation from Howe (Hist. Coll.
Ohio, ii, 574, 1896) is pertinent: "The Senecas of
Sandusky--so-called--owned and occupied 40,000 acres of choice land on the
east side of Sandusky river, being mostly in this [Seneca] and partly in
Sandusky county. Thirty thousand acres of this land was granted to them on
the 29th of September, 1817, at the treaty of Maumee Rapids. The remaining
10,000 acres, lying south of the other, was granted by the treaty at St
Mary's, 17th of September, 1818." By the treaty concluded at Washington
Feb. 28, 1831, these Seneca ceded their lands in Ohio to the United States
and agreed to emigrate southwest of Missouri, on Neosho river. The same
writer states that in 1831 "their principal chiefs were Coonstick, Small
Cloud Spicer, Seneca Steel, Hard Hickory, Tall Chief, and Good Hunter, the
last two of whom were their principal orators. The old chief Good Hunter
told Henry C. Brish, their subagent, that this band [which numbered 390 in
1908] were in fact the remnant of Logan's tribe, and says Mr. Brish in a
communication to us: 'I cannot to this day surmise why they were called
Senecas. I never found a Seneca among them. They were Cayugas who were
Mingoes among whom were a few Oneidas, Mohawks, Onondagas, Tuscarawas, and
Wyandots."' The majority of them were certainly not Cayuga, as Logan was
Conestoga or Mingo on his maternal side.
The earliest estimates of the numbers of the Seneca, in
1660 and 1677, give them about 5,000. Later estimates of the population
are: 3,500 (1721); 1,750 (1736); 5,000 (1765); 3,250 (1778); 2,000 (1783);
3,000 (1783), and 1,780 (1796). In 1825 those in New York were reported at
2,325. In 1850, according to Morgan, those in New York numbered 2,712,
while about 210 more were on Grand River reservation in Canada. In 1909
those in New York numbered 2,749 on the three reservations, which, with
those on Grand river, Ontario, would give them a total of 2,962. The
proportion of Seneca now among the 4,071 Iroquois at Caughnawaga, St
Regis, and Lake of Two Mountains, Quebec can not be estimated.
