Athapascan Family. The most widely distributed of all the Indian linguistic
families of North America, formerly extending over parts of the continent from
the Arctic coast far into north Mexico, from the Pacific to Hudson bay at the
north, and from the Rio Colorado to the mouth of the Rio Grande at the south a
territory extending for more than 40° of latitude and 75° of longitude.
The languages which compose the Athapascan family are
plainly related to each other and, because of certain peculiarities, stand out
from the other American languages with considerable distinctness. Phonetically
they are rendered harsh and difficult for European ears because of series of
guttural sounds, many continuants, and frequent checks and aspirations.
Morphologically they are marked by a sentence verb of considerable complexity,
due largely to many decayed prefixes and to various changes of the root to
indicate the number and character of the subject and object. Between the various
languages much regular phonetic change, especially of vowels, appears, and while
certain words are found to be common, each language, independently of the
others, has formed many nouns by coin-position and transformed the structure of
its verbs. The wide differences in physical type and culture and the differences
in language point to a long separation of the family, certainly covering many
centuries. Geographically it consists of three divisions: Northern, Pacific, and
Southern.
The Northern division, known as the Tinneh, or Déné,
the name they apply to themselves, consists of three groups: The eastern, the
northwestern, the southwestern. The eastern group occupies a vast extent of
continuous territory, bounded on the east by the Rocky Mountains and lower
Mackenzie river, on the south by the watershed between the Athabasca and lower
Peace rivers, Athabasca lake, and Churchill river. To the east and north a
narrow but continuous strip of Eskimo territory bars them from Hudson bay and
the Arctic ocean. Their neighbors on the south are members of the Algonquian
family. This group seems to constitute a culture area of its own, rather uniform
and somewhat limited on its material side. Very little is known of the folklore
and religion of the people of this region. The principal tribes are the
Tatsanottine or Yellowknives, east of Yellowknife river, the Thlingchadinne or
Dogribs, between Great Slave and Great Bear lakes; on Mackenzie river, beginning
at the north, the Kawchodinneh or Hares, and the Etchaottine or Slaveys; the
Chipewyan on Slave river, the Tsattine or Beavers on Peace river; and some 500
miles to the south beyond the area outlined, the Sarsi, a small tribe allied
with their Algonquian neighbors, the Siksika. The northwestern group occupies
the interior of Alaska and adjacent portions of British territory as far as the
Rocky Mountains. The shore lands to the north and west are held by the Eskimo,
except. at Cook inlet and Copper river. The people seem to have been much
occupied with the severe struggle with the elements for a bare existence to have
developed much material culture. They are usually distinguished into three
principal divisions: The Kutchin of Porcupine and Tanana rivers., the middle
course of the Yukon, and the lower Mackenzie (where they are often spoken of as
Louchoux); the Ahtena of Copper river; and the Khotana of the lower Yukon,
Koyukuk river, and Cook inlet. The south-western group occupies the mountainous
interior of British America from the upper Yukon to lat. 51° 30', with the Rocky
Mountains for their east barrier, and with the Skittagetan, Koluschan,
Chimmesyan, and Wakashan families between them and the Pacific. Theirs neighbors
are the Salish. They are said to show considerable variety of physical
appearance, culture, and language. The tribes composing this group are,
according to Morice, beginning at the north, the Nahane; the Sekani; the Babine
(Nataotin), on the shores of a lake bearing that name; the Carriers (Takulli),
who occupy the territory from Stuart lake southward to Alexandria on Fraser
river, and the Chilcotin (Tsilkotin), who live in the valley of the river to
which they have given their name.
The Pacific division consisted formerly of a small band
in Washington and of many villages in a strip of nearly continuous territory
about 400 in. in length, beginning at the valley of Umpqua river in Oregon and
extending toward the south along the coast and Coast Range Mountains to the
headwaters of Eel river in California. Their territory was cut through at one
point by the Yurok on Klamath river. These villages were in many cases separated
by low but rugged mountains, and were surrounded by, and here and there
surrounded, the small stocks characteristic of the region. The culture
throughout this territory was by no means uniform, partly on account of the
great differences between the conditions of life on 'the sea-coast and those of
inland mountain valleys, and partly because there was little intercourse between
the river valleys of the region. For the greater part, in language there was a
gradual transition through intermediate dialects from one end of the region to
the other. There were probably 5 of these dialects which were mutually
unintelligible. There were no tribes in this region, but groups of villages
which sometimes joined in a raid against a common enemy and where the same
dialect was spoken. The following dialectic groups made up this division: The
Kwalhioqua in Washington; the Umpqua and Coquille (Mishikhwutmetunne), formerly
on rivers of these names; the Taltushtuntude, Chastacosta, and Tututunne on
Rogue river and its tributaries, and the Chetco on Chetco river in Oregon; the
Tolowa on Smith river and about Crescent City; the Hupa and Tlelding on the
lower portion of Trinity river; the Hoilkut on Redwood creek; the Mattole on the
river of that name; the Sinkyone, Lassik, and Kuneste in the valley of Eel
river, in California. But few of the members of this division now remain. The
Oregon portion has been on the Siletz and Grande Ronde Reservation for many
years; those of California still reside near their ancient homes.
The Southern division held sway over a vast area in the
south west, including most of Arizona and New Mexico, the south portion of Utah
and Colorado, the west borders of Kansas and Texas, and the north part of Mexico
to lat. 25°. Their principal neighbors were the members of the Shoshonean family
and the various Pueblo tribes in the region. So far as is known the language and
culture of this division are quite uniform. The peoples composing it are the
Navaho south of San Juan river in north east Arizona and north west, New Mexico,
the Apache (really a group of tribes) on all sides of the Navaho except the
north, and the Lipan formerly in west Texas but now living with the
Mescaleros
in New Mexico.
Not included in the three divisions described above are
the Kiowa Apache, a small band which has maintained its own language while
living on intimate terms with the Kiowa. They seem never to have been connected
with the Southern division, but appear to have come from the north many years
ago.
The tendency of the members of this family to adopt the
culture of neighboring peoples is so marked that it is difficult to determine
and describe any distinctive Athapascan culture or, indeed, to say whether such
a culture ever existed. Thus, the tribes of the extreme north, especially in
Alaska, had assimilated many of the customs and arts of the Eskimo, the Takulli
had adopted the social organization and much of the mythology of the Tsimshian,
the western Nahane had adopted the culture of the Tlingit, the Tsilkotin that of
the Salish, while the Sarsi and Beavers possessed much in common with their
Algonquian neighbors to the south and east. Passing to the Pacific group,
practically no difference is found between the culture which they presented and
that of the surrounding tribes of other stocks, and it is evident that the
social organization and many of the rites and ceremonies of the Navaho, and even
of the Apache, were due to Pueblo influences. Although in this respect the
Athapascan resembles the Salishan and
Shoshonean families, its pliability and
adaptability appear to have been much greater, a fact noted by missionaries
among the northern Athapascans up to the present day.
If a true Athapascan culture may be said to have
existed anywhere, it was among the eastern tribes of the Northern group, such as
the Chipewyan, Kawchodinne, Stuichamukh, Tatsanottine, and Thlingchadinne,
although differing comparatively little from that of the northernmost Algonquian
tribes and the neighboring Eskimo. Although recognizing a certain individuality,
these tribes had little coherence, and, were subdivided into family groups or
loose bands, without clans or gentes, which recognized a kind of patriarchal
government and descent. Perhaps the strongest authority was that exercised by
the leader of a hunting party, the difference between success and failure on
such a quest being frequently the difference between the existence or extinction
of a band.
Clothing was made of deerskins in the hair, and the
lodges of deer or caribou skins, sometimes replaced by bark farther s. Their
food consisted of caribou, deer, moose, musk-ox, and buffalo, together with
smaller animals, such as the beaver and hare, various kinds of birds, and
several varieties of fish found in the numerous lakes and rivers. They killed
deer by driving them into an angle formed by two converging rows of stakes,
where they were shot by hunters lying in wait. The man was complete master in
his own lodge, his wife being entirely subservient and assuming the most
laborious duties. Infanticide, especially of female children, was common,, but
had its excuse in the hard life these people were obliged to undergo. In summer
transportation was effected in birch-bark canoes; in winter the dogs carried
most of the household goods, except in so far as they were assisted by the
women, and on the barren grounds they were provided with sledges. The bodies of
the dead were placed on the ground, covered with bark and surrounded by palings,
except in the case of noted men, whose bodies were placed in boxes on the
branches of trees. Shamans existed, and their sayings were of much influence
with some of the people, but religion does not seem to have exerted as strong an
influence as in most other parts of America. At the same time they had absolute
faith in the necessity and efficacy of certain charms which they tied to their
fishing hooks and nets. Nearly all have now been Christianized by Roman Catholic
missionaries and seem to be devout converts. For an account of the culture of
the remaining Athapascan tribes, see the special articles under the tribal names
and articles dealing with other tribes in the same localities.
In the synonymy which follows the names are not always
to be accepted as true equivalents. The Northern Athapascan or Déné
are usually meant.
