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Sign Language with Reference to Grammar
Apart from the more material and substantive
relations between signs and language, it is to be expected
that analogies can by proper research be ascertained between
their several developments in the manner of their use, that
is, in their grammatic mechanism, and in the genesis of the
sentence. The science of language, ever henceforward to be
studied historically, must take account of the similar early
mental processes in which the phrase or sentence originated,
both in sign and oral utterance. In this respect, as in many
others, the North American Indians may be considered to be
living representatives of prehistoric man.
Degrees of Comparison Degrees of comparison are frequently
expressed, both by deaf-mutes and by Indians, by adding to
the generic or descriptive sign that for "big" or "little."
Damp would be "wet—little"; cool,
"cold—little"; hot, "warm—much." The amount or force
of motion also often indicates corresponding diminution or
augmentation, but sometimes expresses a different shade of
meaning, as is reported by Dr. Matthews with reference to
the sign for bad and contempt, see page 411.
This change in degree of motion is, however, often used for
emphasis only, as is the raising of the voice in speech or
italicizing and capitalizing in print. The Prince of Wied
gives an instance of a comparison in his sign for
excessively hard, first giving that for hard, viz:
Open the left hand, and strike against it several times with
the right (with the backs of the fingers). Afterwards he
gives hard, excessively, as follows: Sign for hard,
then place the left index-finger upon the right shoulder, at
the same time extend and raise the right arm high, extending
the index-finger upward, perpendicularly.
Rev. G.L. Deffenbaugh describes what may perhaps be regarded
as an intensive sign among the Sahaptins in connection with
the sign for good; i.e., very good. "Place the left
hand in position in front of the body with all fingers
closed except first, thumb lying on second, then with
forefinger of right hand extended in same way point to end
of forefinger of left hand, move it up the arm till near the
body and then to a point in front of breast to make the sign
good." For the latter see Extracts from Dictionary
page 487, infra. The same special motion is prefixed
to the sign for bad as an intensive.
Another intensive is reported by Mr. Benjamin Clark,
interpreter at the Kaiowa, Comanche, and Wichita agency,
Indian Territory, in which after the sign for bad is
made, that for strong is used by the Comanches as
follows: Place the clinched left fist horizontally in front
of the breast, back forward, then pass the palmar side of
the right fist downward in front of the knuckles of the
left.
Dr. W.H. Corbusier, assistant surgeon U.S.A., writes as
follows in response to a special inquiry on the subject: "By
carrying the right fist from behind forward over the left,
instead of beginning the motion six inches above it, the
Arapaho sign for strong is made. For brave,
first strike the chest over the heart with the right fist
two or three times, and then make the sign for strong.
"The sign for strong expresses the superlative when
used with other signs; with coward it denotes a base coward;
with hunger, starvation; and with sorrow, bitter sorrow. I
have not seen it used with the sign for pleasure or that of
hunger, nor can I learn that it is ever used with them."
Opposition The principle of opposition, as between the
right and left hands, and between the thumb and forefinger
and the little finger, appears among Indians in some
expressions for "above," "below," "forward," "back," but is
not so common as among the methodical, distinguished from
the natural, signs of deaf-mutes. It is also connected with
the attempt to express degrees of comparison. Above
is sometimes expressed by holding the left hand horizontal,
and in front of the body, fingers open, but joined together,
palm upward. The right hand is then placed horizontal,
fingers open but joined, palm downward, an inch or more
above the left, and raised and lowered a few inches several
times, the left hand being perfectly still. If the thing
indicated as "above" is only a little above, this
concludes the sign, but if it be considerably above,
the right hand is raised higher and higher as the height to
be expressed is greater, until, if enormously above,
the Indian will raise his right hand as high as possible,
and, fixing his eyes on the zenith, emit a duplicate grunt,
the more prolonged as he desires to express the greater
height. All this time the left hand is held perfectly
motionless. Below is gestured in a corresponding
manner, all movement being made by the left or lower hand,
the right being held motionless, palm downward, and the eyes
looking down.
The code of the Cistercian monks was based in large part on
a system of opposition which seems to have been wrought out
by an elaborate process of invention rather than by
spontaneous figuration, and is more of mnemonic than
suggestive value. They made two fingers at the right side of
the nose stand for "friend," and the same at the left side
for "enemy," by some fanciful connection with right and
wrong, and placed the little finger on the tip of the nose
for "fool" merely because it had been decided to put the
forefinger there for "wise man."
Gender This is sometimes expressed by different
signs to distinguish the sex of animals, when the difference
in appearance allows of such varied portraiture. An example
is in the signs for the male and female buffalo, given by
the Prince of Wied. The former is, "Place the tightly closed
hands on both sides of the head, with the fingers forward;"
the latter is, "Curve the two forefingers, place them on the
sides of the head and move them several times." The short
stubby horns of the bull appear to be indicated, and the
cow's ears are seen moving, not being covered by the bull's
shock mane. Tribes in which the hair of the women is
differently arranged from that of men often denote their
females by corresponding gesture. In many cases the sex of
animals is indicated by the addition of a generic sign for
male or female. Tense While it has been mentioned that there is no
inflection of signs to express tense, yet the conception of
present, past, and future is gestured without difficulty. A
common mode of indicating the present time is by the use of
signs for to-day, one of which is, "(1) both hands
extended, palms outward; (2) swept slowly forward and to
each side, to convey the idea of openness." (Cheyenne
II.) This may combine the idea of now with
openness, the first part of it resembling the general
deaf-mute sign for here or now.
Two signs nearly related together are also reported as
expressing the meaning now, at once, viz.:
"Forefinger of the right hand extended, upright, &c. (J), is
carried upward in front of the right side of the body and
above the head so that the extended finger points toward the
center of the heavens, and then carried downward in front of
the right breast, forefinger still pointing upright." (Dakota
I.) "Place the extended index, pointing upward, palm to the
left, as high as and before the top of the head; push the
hand up and down a slight distance several times, the eyes
being directed upward at the time." (Hidatsa I;
Kaiowa I; Arikara I; Comanche III;
Apache II; Wichita II.)
Time past is not only expressed, but some tribes give a
distinct modification to show a short or long time past. The
following are examples:
Lately, recently.—Hold the left hand at arm's length,
closed, with forefinger only extended and pointing in the
direction of the place where the event occurred; then hold
the right hand against the right shoulder, closed, but with
index extended and pointing in the direction of the left.
The hands may be exchanged, the right extended and the left
retained, as the case may require for ease in description. (Absaroka
I; Shoshoni and Banak I.)
Long ago.—Both hands closed, forefingers extended and
straight; pass one hand slowly at arm's length, pointing
horizontally, the other against the shoulder or near it,
pointing in the same direction as the opposite one.
Frequently the tips of the forefingers are placed together,
and the hands drawn apart, until they reach the positions
described. (Absaroka I; Shoshoni and Banak I.)
The Comanche, Wichita, and other Indians designate a
short time ago by placing the tips of the forefinger and
thumb of the left hand together, the remaining fingers
closed, and holding the hand before the body with forefinger
and thumb pointing toward the right shoulder; the index and
thumb of the right hand are then similarly held and placed
against those of the left, when the hands are slowly drawn
apart a short distance. For a long time ago the hands
are similarly held, but drawn farther apart. Either of these
signs may be and frequently is preceded by those for day,
month, or year, when it is desired to convey a
definite idea of the time past.
A sign is reported with the abstract idea of future,
as follows: "The arms are flexed and hands brought together
in front of the body as in type-position (W). The hands are
made to move in wave-like motions up and down together and
from side to side." (Oto I.) The authority gives the
poetical conception of "Floating on the tide of time."
The ordinary mode of expressing future time is, however, by
some figurative reference, as the following: Count off
fingers, then shut all the fingers of both hands several
times, and touch the hair and tent or other white object. (Apache
III.) "Many years; when I am old (whitehaired)."
Conjunctions An interesting instance where the rapid
connection of signs has the effect of the conjunction and is
shown in Nátci's Narrative, infra.
Prepositions In the Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue (page 489)
the combination of gestures supplies the want of the
proposition to. Punctuation While this is generally accompanied by facial expression,
manner of action, or pause, instances have been noticed
suggesting the device of interrogation points and periods.
Mark of interrogation.
The Shoshoni, Absaroka, Dakota, Comanche, and other Indians,
when desiring to ask a question, precede the gestures
constituting the information desired by a sign intended to
attract attention and "asking for," viz., by holding the
flat right hand, with the palm down, directed, to the
individual interrogated, with or without lateral oscillating
motion; the gestural sentence, when completed, being closed
by the same sign and a look of inquiry. This recalls the
Spanish use of the interrogation points before and after the
question.
Period.
A Hidatsa, after concluding a short statement, indicated its
conclusion by placing the inner edges of the clinched hands
together before the breast, and passing them outward and
downward to their respective sides in an emphatic manner,
Fig. 334, page 528. This sign is also used in other
connections to express done.
The same mode of indicating the close of a narrative or
statement is made by the Wichitas, by holding the extended
left hand horizontally before the body, fingers pointing to
the right, palm either toward the body or downward, and
cutting edgewise downward past the tips of the left with the
extended right hand. This is the same sign given in the
Address of Kin Chēĕss
as cut off, and is illustrated in Fig. 324, page 522.
This is more ideographic and convenient than the device of
the Abyssinian Galla, reported by M.A. d'Abbadie, who
denoted a comma by a slight stroke of a leather whip, a
semicolon by a harder one, and a full stop by one still
harder.
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Sign Language
Among North American Indians Compared with
that Among Other Peoples and Deaf-Mutes,
1881
Indian Sign
Language
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