While we know our northern friends may not feel it, in the South, Spring is
here. So we thought we'd share a few of our gardening sites appropriate
for this time of the year. Along with gardening, there's grilling, and getting
ready to diet so that you can fit back into that bathing suit this summer!
Physical Peculiarities Of The Quichuas, Aymaras, Atacamas,
And Changos. Nature Of The Country.
Peruvian Works Of Art, Etc. First Rumors Of The Wealth Of The Country.
Expedition Of Pascual De Andagoya. Francisco Pizarro: His First Voyage Of
Discovery.
Almagro S Voyage. Con Tract Of Pizarro, Almagro, And Luque. The Second
Expedition.
Pizarro And His Companions Upon The Isle Of Gorgona Continuation Of The Voyage.
Tumbez. Return To Panama.
The Peruvian and Araucanian races alone,
among the South American aborigines, present
subjects of interest to the historian. The
other tribes of that great portion of the
western continent are at an infinite remove
from these in the scale of civilization, and
can scarce be said to have any separate
national history. We shall describe their
habits and physical appearance, much as we
should enter upon the duties of the writer
upon natural history: an attempt to arrange
a serial narrative of events, as connected
with them would be useless.
Widely contrasted with the wild and savage
tribes of the interior, and of the eastern
coast, the Peruvians offer, in their
character and history, a fruitful theme for
the attention and research of the historian
and the philosopher. As a nation, they were,
when discovered by Europeans, perfectly
unique. Such refinements in government, such
unity of purpose, and such perfect system,
as were observable in all their customs and
usages, have never been even attempted, much
less accomplished, by any other community
throughout the globe.
The physical conformation of the Quichua
race, the most prominent among the ancient
inhabitants of Peru, is somewhat singular.
The effects of living at such an immense
elevation as that of many of their cities,
and of the great plateaus which they inhabit
among the Andes, cause a remarkable
development of the chest. The rarity of the
air in mountainous districts render a much
greater volume of it necessary in
respiration. The Quichuas have there fore,
according to M. d'Orbigny, "very large,
square shoulders, a broad chest, very
voluminous, highly arched, and longer than
usual, which increases the size of the
trunk. The extremities are nevertheless,
very muscular, and bespeak great strength;
the head is larger than usual in proportion
to the rest of the body; the hands and feet
are always small."
The Quichuas differ, in a marked manner,
from most of the other South American
nations, in the features of the countenance.
These are said in some degree to approach
the Mexican type. A prominent aquiline nose,
large nostrils, the forehead somewhat
retreating, a moderately full cerebral
development, rather a large mouth, adorned
with fine teeth, and a short but well
defined chin, may be given as generally
characteristic of the race.
The Quichuas have beautifully soft, thick,
and flowing hair, but are almost destitute
of beards. Their complex ion is a brown
olive, entirely distinct from the reddish or
copper hue of most of the North American
Indians. It approaches that of the mulatto
more nearly than that of the other American
aborigines, and is spoken of as singularly
uniform. They are of low stature,
particularly those who live in the more
elevated regions. Their general physiognomy,
in the words of the author above cited, "is,
upon the whole, uniform, serious,
reflective, melancholy, without, however,
showing indifference: it denotes rather
penetration without frankness. Their
features altogether retain a mediocrity of
expression. The women are seldom very
handsome; their noses are not so prominent
or curved as those of the men: the latter,
although they have no beard, have a
masculine expression, derived from their
strongly marked features. An ancient vase,
which represents with striking fidelity, the
features of the present race of Quichuas
convinces us that for four and five
centuries their physiognomy has undergone no
sensible alteration."
The Aymaras, the second in the grand
division of the Peruvian races, bear a close
resemblance to those just described. In
early times the strange and unnatural custom
of flattening the head obtained among them,
as is fully proved by the contour of many
skulls found in their ancient places of
burial or deposit.
No material variation from the Quichuan
bodily formation is noticeable in the
Atacamas, who inhabit the western slope of
the Andes; but the Changos, dwelling upon
the hot levels of the sea-coast, "are of
darker hue: their color is a tawny,
approaching to black."
The country inhabited by these three races,
although lying within the tropics, and in
certain localities luxuriantly rich and
fertile, presents obstacles to the
agriculturalist, which would seem almost
insurmountable. Nothing but the whole
industry of a great nation, directed
systematically to the work of reclamation
and improvement, could ever have made Peru
what it was in the days of the Incas.
A flat and sterile plain, washed by the
Pacific, forms the western boundary of the
ancient empire. On this district rain never
falls; at least, the few drops, which at
certain seasons sprinkle the surface, are
insufficient to avail in the slightest
degree for the promotion of fertility. From
the stupendous mountain ranges which extend
in an unbroken course throughout the western
sea-board of South America, impetuous
torrents pour down through the plains
towards the sea, and, by a laborious and
ingenious diversion, these streams were led
by the ancient Peruvians in long and massive
aqueducts to irrigate the plain or the
terraces wrought upon the steep sides of the
mountains. Some mention has been made, in a
former chapter, of the ruins which still
remain to attest the advancement and
enterprise of the ancient Peruvians,
particularly of the great roads by which
ready communication was opened over the most
rugged and naturally impassable country in
the world. A further description of some of
these relics will be given hereafter, as
connected with their wonderful system of
government, and its effects in the
accomplishment of public works.
Mexico had already fallen into the hands of
the Spaniards, and their settlements had
long been established upon the Isthmus,
before the world obtained any knowledge of
the western coast of South America. The
national thirst for gold, only the more
excited by the successes in contest with the
Aztecs, was roused anew by reports gathered
from the natives of the Isthmus, of a far
richer and more magnificent empire at the
South.
The first attempt to explore the coast to
the southward had been made in 1522, by
Pascual de Andagoya, but he proceeded no
further than the Puerto de Pinas, near the
mouth of the small river Biru. Two years
passed away without any further discoveries,
at the end of which time, the matter was
taken in hand by a man whose character
leaves us at a loss whether we should the
more admire his courage, fortitude, and
indomitable energy, or execrate his cruelty
and unscrupulous rapacity. This man was
Francisco Pizarro. He was, at this time,
about fifty years of age, the last ten of
which, at least, he had passed amid the
stirring scenes of discovery and conquest in
the New World. He had, among other
adventures, shared the dangers and the
exultation of Vasco Nugnez de Bal boa, in
his first passage of the Isthmus, and his
discovery of the Western Ocean. He was now
residing near Panama, and is said to have
accumulated but a small landed property as
the reward of his long labors and
privations.
Pizarro was the illegitimate son of a
colonel of infantry, named Gonzalo Pizarro,
and a woman of low rank, residing at
Truxillo, in Spain, in which city the future
conqueror was born. In the great enterprise
of the conquest of Peru, he was associated
with one Diego de Almagro, a man of more
uncertain origin, and less favored by
worldly prosperity, even than himself. This
companion in arms was, at all events, a
brave and gallant soldier. Fortunately for
the two adventurers, they succeeded in
securing the assistance of Hernando de Luque,
an ecclesiastic occupied in the duties of
his profession at Panama. With such funds as
could be raised by these three, a vessel was
pro cured, and about one hundred men were
enlisted to share the danger and profits of
the expedition. Pedrarias, the Spanish
governor, sanctioned the proceeding,
stipulating, at the same time, for a
proportion of the gold that should be
brought home.
In November 1524, Pizarro set sail, leaving
Almagro to prepare another vessel which they
had purchased, and to follow as soon as
possible. Nothing but disaster marked this
first voyage. Storms at sea; conflicts with
natives on shore; sickness, exposure, and
starvation, thinned the numbers and broke
down the spirit of the party. Pizarro alone
appears to have maintained an unskaken
fortitude and determination.
No provisions could be procured at the spots
where the voyagers landed, and it became
necessary to send the vessel back for
supplies. About half the company, under one
Montenegro, was dispatched for this purpose,
leaving the rest of the adventurers upon the
swampy, unwholesome coast, not far from the
mouth of the Biru, to support them selves as
best they could amid an almost impenetrable
wilderness of rank tropical vegetation.
Nearly half their number perished before any
relief was obtained. When at the extremity
of distress, the sight of a distant light
amid the forest awakened their hopes, and
Pizarro, with a small scouting party, led by
this token of human habitation, penetrated
the thicket to an Indian village. His hungry
followers seized on whatever offered. As the
natives, who had at first fled in terror,
gradually approached and held communication
with them, their hopes were again revived by
the sight of rude ornaments in gold, and by
the confirmation of the reports concerning a
rich empire at the south.
It was six weeks from the time of his
departure before Montenegro returned to
rescue his remaining companions. With
renewed hope and zeal, the party reembarked,
and continued to coast along the shore.
After landing at other places, and
experiencing severe encounters with the war
like natives, it was found necessary to
return to Panama to refit.
Almagro, in the mean time, had followed in
the same course, with the second vessel, and
landed at most of the places visited by
Pizarro. He was more successful in his
engagements with the natives than the first
party had proved and succeeded in extending
his voyage as far south as the river of San
Juan. At this place unmistakable tokens of
approach to a well-cultivated and inhabited
country presented themselves. Finding no
further traces of Pizarro and his
companions, and supposing that they must
have perished or have been compelled to
return, Almagro now turned his course
towards Panama. He brought home more gold
and more favorable reports than his partner;
but the disasters, losses, and miserable
condition of the first voyagers tended to
throw almost insurmountable obstacles in the
way of a second attempt.
The three confederates Pizarro, Almagro, and
Father Luque continued as sanguine as ever.
The necessary funds were obtained by the
latter, as is said, of one Gas-par de
Espinosa, in whose name he acted, and in
whose behalf he stipulated for one-third of
all returns which should result from a
successful completion of the immense
undertaking. A solemn contract was entered
into between the parties, strengthened by
all the ceremonials of oaths and religious
services. Neither of the two soldiers could
write, and their signatures were executed in
their presence, by the witnesses to the
instrument of contract.
Pedrarias had been succeeded by Don Pedro de
los Rios, and the new governor assented to
the second expedition. This was undertaken
with two vessels, carrying about one hundred
and sixty men and a few horses. The services
of Bartholomew Ruiz, a skilful pilot, were
secured. The adventurers steered direct for
the mouth of the San Juan, and, landing at
an Indian village on the river, obtained
some plunder in gold, and seized upon the
persons of a few of the natives. The country
appeared too populous to offer much chance
of success to such a small band of invaders.
Almagro was therefore sent back to enlist
more men at home, while Ruiz, with the other
vessel, explored the coast further to the
south, and Pizarro remained near the river,
with a portion of the crew. The latter
endured much from famine, exposure, and
fatigue, during the absence of Ruiz.
Attempting to penetrate into the interior,
in hopes of finding a more open country,
they were completely worn down and
dispirited.
The pilot, in the mean time, had made his
way far southward. He had crossed the
equator, and touched at several places,
where the dense population and well-built
dwellings gave proofs of no little
advancement in civilization. He brought with
him several Indian prisoners, taken at sea,
upon one of the rude boats, or rather rafts,
called "balsas," in which they were
voyaging. Some of these were from the port
of Tumbez, and their marvelous accounts of
the quantities of gold and silver used by
their monarch, roused anew the cupidity of
the Spaniards.
Almagro spoil after arrived with numerous
fresh recruits, and, what with the glowing
reports of Ruiz, and this addition to their
force, the weakened and despairing followers
of Pizarro regained their former hopes and
courage. The whole company again set sail
for the land of promise. At Tacames, near
the mouth of the Santiago, where the present
town of Esmeraldas is situated, the
flourishing appearance of the country
invited the voyagers to land; but they were
opposed by thousands of armed natives, who
attacked them with great fury. It was sup
posed that all the Christians must have
perished in this onslaught, but for a
strange mistake on the part of the Indians.
A few of the Spaniards were mounted upon
horses a sight never before witnessed in
Peru and one of the cavaliers happening to
fall from his horse, the Indians supposed
that a single enemy had become two. The
horse and his rider were taken for but one
animal, and the confusion and amazement
caused by the sight of such a prodigious
separation, gave the Spaniards an
opportunity to retreat.
It was plain that a greater force was
necessary to make any advantageous progress
in the new empire, and again was one of the
little vessels sent back to Panama for
reinforcements, while Pizarro and a portion
of his forces took up their quarters upon
the little island of Gallo. They suffered
every extremity before supplies reached them
from the north, and when two vessels loaded
with stores made their appearance, there was
a general cry for return.
Pizarro, fortified in his determination by
encouraging letters from his allies,
harangued his followers, and gave them their
free choice whether to go forward in search
of fame and wealth, or to return in poverty
and disgrace to Panama. Thirteen only had
the resolution to proffer their further
services. The commander of the store-ships,
who was instructed by the governor to bring
back the party, refused to leave either of
his vessels for the use of these few
valorous spirits, and, grudgingly bestowing
upon them a portion of his provisions, set
sail, leaving them, as was supposed, to
certain destruction.
Upon this island, and upon that of Gorgona,
twenty-five leagues to the northward,
(whither they migrated on a raft, for better
quarters, the little party spent seven
miserable and solitary months. By great
exertions, Almagro and Luque procured
another vessel, and the governor s per
mission to relieve their associates; but
this was not obtained without a positive
injunction to Pizarro to return within six
months. No recruits were taken on board, be
yond the necessary crew of the vessel. Ruiz
had charge of the craft, and the sight of
his approach soon gladdened the desponding
hearts of the destitute and half-famished
expectants at Gorgona.
Without hesitation the little band stood
once more for the south, leaving two of
their number ill on the island, in charge of
some of the friendly natives, who were still
detained in their company. After twenty days
sail, in which they passed, without landing,
the spots of former exploration, the vessel
entered the unknown gulf of Guayaquil.
As the Spaniards directed their course
towards the city of Tumbez, the residence of
the Indian captives, they en countered many
natives, in the balsas which served them for
boats. These strange craft were made of logs
of lightwood, secured together, and fitted
with masts and sails. The crews of these
rafts, in the midst of their amazement at
the prodigy before their eyes, recognized
the Indians on board, and learning from them
that the strangers were bound merely upon
exploration, returned to satisfy the
curiosity of the eager crowds gathered upon
the shore.
A peaceful communication was soon
established, and the sea-wearied Spaniards
were refreshed by bountiful supplies of the
tropical luxuries furnished by the kindly
natives. Llamas, or Peruvian camels, as they
were called, were now for the first time
exhibited and offered to the visitors. A
great noble, of the royal race of the Incas,
came on board, and was courteously
entertained by Pizarro, who pointed out and
explained the mysteries of the vessel and
its accoutrements.
The officers of the Spanish company were in
turn, feasted at the house of the curaca, or
governor of the province, and were shown the
royal temple and fortresses. Some of the
apartments were adorned with such a rich
profusion of massive golden ornaments and
plating, that the dazzled Spaniards now
trusted in the speedy realization of their
long-deferred hopes.
From Tumbez, Pizarro coasted southward as
far as the island and port of Santa, some
distance beyond the site of the present
Truxillo, stopping at various towns and
settlements on his route. The strangers were
everywhere received with hospitality,
kindness, and the most lively curiosity, and
enough was seen fully to convince them of
the richness, civilization, and prosperity
of the thickly populated empire.
Returning to Panama, they again stopped at
Tumbez and other important ports, and thence
brought away specimens of the productions of
the country; among other things, a number of
llamas. At their own request, several of the
Spaniards were left at Tumbez, to enjoy the
luxury and ease, which seemed to be offered
by a life among the kindly natives. A young
Peruvian, named Felipillo, with one or two
companions, was taken on board the vessel,
that he might be instructed in the Spanish
language, and that his appearance might
satisfy the incredulous, at home, as to the
character of the inhabitants of Peru.
The troubles of the enterprising trio to
whom these discoveries were owing were not
yet at an end. The derision and contumely,
which had tended so long to damp their
spirits, was, indeed, changed to
congratulations and eager astonishment at
the return and reports of Pizarro; but the
governor frowned upon the prosecution of the
enterprise. "He did not wish," says Herrera,
"to depopulate his own district in order to
people new countries " the gold, silver, and
sheep which had been exhibited, seemed to
him but a paltry return for the expenditure
of such an amount of lives and money, and
the endurance of such hardships and
suffering as were the fruits of the first
expeditions.
Before continuing the account of the steps
by which the great work of conquest was
finally achieved, it will be well to take a
brief view of the condition of the devoted
country at the period of its discovery.
The two great monarchies of Mexico and Peru,
both of them in a state of semi-civilization
at the period of Spanish discoveries and
conquests, are closely associated in our
minds. The thoughts of one naturally suggest
that of the other. We shall, however, find,
upon an examination of history, that these
nations were widely dissimilar: neither, in
all human probability, had any knowledge of
the others existence, and no intercourse
could have been maintained between them from
a period of the most remote antiquity.
Without going into a direct comparison
between these countries, their respective
governments, religion, and national customs,
we shall enter sufficiently into particulars
in treating the present subject, to give the
reader such a general idea of its details
that he can himself perceive the contrasts
and dissimilarities above mentioned.
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includes some historical materials that may imply negative stereotypes
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Indian Races of North and South America, By Charles De Wolf Brownell, 1865
