Indian Tribes of New Mexico

Apache. Probably from ápachu, "enemy," the Zuni name for the Navaho who were designated "Apaches de Nabaju" by the early Spaniards in New Mexico. The name has also been applied to some Yuman tribes, the Apache Mohave (Yavapai) and the Apache Yuma. Also called:

     Connections. Together with the Navaho, the Apache constituted the western group of the southern division of the Athapascan linguistic stock (Hoijer, 1938).

     Location. In southern New Mexico and Arizona, western Texas, and southeastern Colorado, also ranging over much of northern Mexico. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and Mexico.)

Subdivisions

     On linguistic grounds Hoijer (1938) divides the southern Athapascans into two main groups, a western and an eastern. The latter includes the Jicarilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache, the two former being more closely related to each other than either is to the Kiowa Apache. In the western group Hoijer again distinguishes two major subdivisions, the Navaho, and the San Carlos-Chiricahua-Mescalero. The Navaho are always regarded as a distinct tribe and will be so treated here. Separate treatment is also being given to the Jicarilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache. The rest of the southern Athapascans will be placed under the present head, it being freely admitted at the same time that such treatment is mainly a matter of convenience and that it is impossible to say how many and what southern Athapascan divisions should be given tribal status. What is here called the Apache Tribe may be classified as follows with the locations of the divisions, basing the scheme on the classifications of Hoijer and Goodwin (1935) :

1. San Carlos Group:
 

2. Chiricahua-Mescalero Group:

     The term Querecho, as well as Vaquero, was applied rather generally to Apache by the Spaniards but probably more particularly to the Mescalero and their allies.
     Under Llanero were included Mescalero, Jicarilla, and even some Comanche. The term Coyotero has been applied to some of the San Carlos divisions and recently by Murdock (1941) to all.

     History. The Apache tribes had evidently drifted from the north during the prehistoric period, probably along the eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains. When Coronado encountered them in 1540 under the name Querechos, they were in eastern New Mexico and western Texas, and they apparently did not reach Arizona until after the middle of the sixteenth century. They were first called Apache by Onate in 1598. After that time their history was one succession of raids upon the Spanish territories, and after the United States Government had supplanted that of Mexico in the Southwest, the wars with the Apache constituted some of the most sensational chapters in our military annals. Except for some Apache in Mexico and a few Lipans with the Tonkawa and Kiowa in Oklahoma, these people were finally gathered into reservations in New Mexico and Arizona.

     Population. Mooney (1928) estimated that all of the Apache proper numbered 5;000 in 1680. The census of 1910 gives 6,119 Apache of all kinds, excluding only the Kiowa Apache, and the Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923 enumerates 6,630. If an increase has actually occurred, it is to be attributed to the captives taken by these people from all the surrounding tribes and from the Mexicans. The census of 1930 returned 6,537 but this includes the Jicarilla and Lipan. The Apache proper would number about 6,000. However, the Indian Office Report for 1937 gives 6,916 exclusive of the Jicarilla.

     Connection in which they have become noted. Apache is one of the best-known Indian tribal names. This is due
(1) to the warlike character of the people bearing it,
(2) to their constant depredations along the Spanish and American frontiers, and
(3) to the severe and difficult fighting made necessary before they were forced to give up their ancient raiding proclivities. The word has, therefore, been taken over to some extent into literature when it is desired to describe fierce and ruthless individuals, and in this sense it has been given local application to some of the criminal elements of Paris. The name Apache is given to villages in Cochise County, Ariz., and Caddo County, Okla., and Apache Creek is a place in Catron County, N. Mex.

Comanche. In the Spanish period, the Comanche raided into and across the territory of New Mexico repeatedly. (See Texas.)

Jemez. Corrupted from Ha'-mish or Hae'-mish, the Keresan name of the pueblo. Also spelled Amayes, Ameias, Amejes, Emeges, Gemes, etc. Also called:
   Maí-dĕc-kǐž-ne, Navaho name, meaning "wolf neck."
   Tu'-wa, own name of pueblo.
   Uala-to-hua or Walatoa, own name of pueblo, meaning "village of the bear."
   Wöng'-ge, Santa Clara and Ildefonso name, meaning "Navaho place."

     Connections. With the now extinct Pecos, the Jemez constituted a distinct group of the Tanoan linguistic family now a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.

     Location. On the north bank of Jemez River, about 20 miles north-
west of Bernalillo.

Villages

The following names of villages have been recorded as formerly occupied by the Jemez but the list may contain some duplication:

     History. The Jemez came from the north, according to tradition, settling in the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Jemez River and at last in the sandy valley of the Jemez proper. Castaiieda, the chronicler of Coronado's expedition, mentions seven towns be-longing to the Jemez tribe besides three in the region of Jemez Hot Springs. After they had been missionized they were induced to abandon their towns by degrees until about 1622 they became concentrated into the pueblos of Gyusiwa and probably Astialakwa. Both pueblos contained chapels, probably dating from 1618, but before the Pueblo revolt of 1680 Astialakwa was abandoned and another pueblo, probably Patoqua, established. About the middle of the seventeenth century, in conjunction with the Navaho, the Jemez twice plotted insurrection against the Spaniards. After the insurrection of 1680 the Jemez were attacked by Spanish forces led successively by Otermin, Cruzate, and Vargas, the last of whom stormed the mesa in July 1694, killed 84 Indians, and after destroying Patoqua and two other pueblos, returned to Santa Fé with 361 prisoners and a large quantity of stores. Gyusiwa was the only Jemez pueblo reoccupied, but in 1696 there was a second revolt and the Jemez finally fled to the Navaho country, where they remained for a considerable time before returning to their former home. Then they built their present village, called by them Walatoa, "Village of the Bear." In 1728, 108 of the inhabitants died of pestilence. In 1782 Jemez was made a visita of the mission of Sia. In 1838 they were joined by the remnant of their relatives, the Pecos Indians from the upper Rio Pecos. Their subsequent history has been uneventful.

     Population. Mooney (1928) estimates the Jemez population at 2,500 in 1680. In 1890 it was 428; in 1904, 498, including the remnant of Pecos Indians; in 1910, 499. In 1930 the entire Tanoan stock numbered 3,412. In 1937 the Jemez Indians numbered 648.

Jicarilla. An Apache tribe which ranged over the northeastern corner of New Mexico. (See Colorado.)

Keresan Pueblos (See Keresan Pueblos)

Kiowa. The Kiowa raided into and across New Mexico in the Spanish and early American period. (See Oklahoma.)

Kiowa Apache. The Kiowa Apache were an Athapascan tribe incorporated into and accompanying the Kiowa. (See Oklahoma.)

Lipan. The Lipan were the easternmost of the Apache tribes. (See Apache and also Texas.)

Manso. A Spanish word meaning "mild." Also called:
   Gorretas, by Zarate-Salmeron.
   Lanos, by Perea (1632-33).

     Connections. The Manso belonged to the Tanoan division of the Kiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock.

     Location. About Mesilla Valley, in the vicinity of the present Las Cruces, N. Mex.

The mission of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Mansos was founded among them but none of the native names of their villages are known.

     History. Shortly before the appearance of the Spaniards in their country, the Manso lived in substantial houses like the Pueblo Indians generally but changed these to dwellings of reeds and wood. They were relocated at a spot near El Paso in 1659 by Fray Garcia de San Francisco, who established the above-mentioned mission among them. The remnant of the Manso are now associated in one town with the Tiwa and Piro.

     Population. In 1668, when the mission of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Mansos was dedicated, Vetancourt states that it contained upward of 1,000 parishioners. Very few of Manso blood remain.

Navaho (See Navaho)

Pecos. From P'e'-a-ku', the Keresan name of the pueblo. Also called:

     Connections. The Pecos belonged to the Jemez division of the Tanoan linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock. Location.—On an upper branch of Pecos River, about 30 miles southeast of Santa Fe.

Villages

The following are names of ruined Pecos villages:

   Kuuanguala, a few miles southeast of Pecos, near Arroyo Amarillo, at the present
site of Rowe.
   Pomojoua, near San Antonio del Pueblo, 3 miles southeast of San Miguel, San
Miguel County.
   San Jose, modern Spanish name of locality.
   Seyupa, a few miles southeast of Pecos, at the site of the village of Fulton, San Miguel County.
   Tonchuun, 5 miles southeast of Pecos Pueblo.

     History. According to tradition, the Pecos came originally from some place to the north of their historic seats, but their last migration was from the southeast where they occupied successively the now ruined pueblos at San Jose and Kingman before locating at their final settlement. Pecos was first visited by Coronado in 1540 and afterward by Espejo in 1583, Castano de Sosa in 1590–91, and Onate in 1598. During the governorship of Oñate, missionaries were assigned to Pecos, and the great church, so long a landmark of the Santa F6 Trail, was erected about 1617. The town suffered severely from attacks of the Apache of the Plains and afterward from the Comanche. In the Pueblo revolts of 1680–96 it took an active part and suffered proportionately. In 1782 the Pecos mission was abandoned, the place becoming a visita of Santa Fe. A few years later nearly every man in the Pecos tribe is said to have been killed in a raid by the Comanche, epidemics decreased the numbers of the remainder, and in 1838 the old town of Pecos was abandoned. The
17 surviving Pecos Indians moved to Jemez, where their descendants still live.

     Population. At the time of Coronado's visit in 1540 the population was estimated as 2,000–2,500. In 1630 and 1680 there were 2,000 Pecos; in 1760, 599 (including Galisteo); in 1790–93, 152; in 1805, 104; in 1838, 17; in 1910, 10.

     Connection in which they have become noted. The name Pecos seems assured of permanent preservation as applied to Pecos River, Tex., the largest branch of the Rio Grande, as well as to Pecos County, Tex., and its principal town, and also to a place in San Miguel County, New Mex., adjacent to the ruins of the aboriginal village. The latter are well known as a result of the archeological work done there by Dr. A. V. Kidder for the Department of Archeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.

Piro Pueblos. Significance of Piro unknown. Also called:
   Norteflos, "northerners" in Spanish, because inhabiting the region of El Paso del Norte (may also refer to Tiwa).
   Tiikahun, Islets Tiwa name for all pueblos below their village, meaning "southern pueblos."

     Connections. They were a division of the Tanoan linguistic family, which in turn is a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.

     Location and major subdivisions. In the early part of the seventeenth century the Piro comprised two divisions, one inhabiting the Rio Grande Valley from the present town of San Marcial, Socorro County, northward to within about 50 miles of Albuquerque, where the Tiwa settlements began; and the other, sometimes called Tompiros and Salineros, occupying an area east of the Rio Grande in the vicinity of the salt lagoons, or salinas, where they adjoined the eastern group of Tiwa settlements on the south.

Towns

Following are names of deserted pueblos near the lower Rio Grande which were
also in all probability occupied by the Piro:

The following deserted pueblos were inhabited either by the Piro or the Tiwa:

     All the above pueblos not definitely located were probably situated in the Salinas in the vicinity of Abe.

      History. The western or Rio Grande branch of the Piro was visited by members of Coronado's Expedition in 1540, by Chamuscado in 1580, by Espejo in 1583, by Onate in 1598, and by Benavides in 1621-30. The establishment of missionaries among them began in 1626, and the efforts of the monks combined with the threats of Apache raids to induce the Indians to concentrate into a smaller number of towns. The first actual mission work among the Piros of the Salinas began in 1629 and was prosecuted rapidly, but before the Pueblo rebellion of 1680 Apache raids had become so numerous that all of the villages of the Salinas region and Senecu on the Rio Grande were abandoned. The Piro were not invited to take part in the great rebellion and when Governor Otermin retreated to El Paso nearly all of them joined him, while the few who remained subse quently scattered. Those who accompanied the governor were settled at Senecu del Sur and Socorro del Sur, where their descendants became largely Mexicanized.

     Population. The Piro population was estimated at 9,000 early in the sixteenth century, but is now about 60. (See Tewa.)

Pueblo Indians. A general name for those Indians in the Southwest who dwelt in stone buildings as opposed to the tribes living in more fragile shelters, pueblo being the word for "town" or "village" in Spanish. It is not a tribal or even a stock name, since the Pueblos belonged to four distinct stocks. Following is the classification of Pueblos made by F. W. Hodge (1910) except that the Kiowa have since been connected with the Tanoans and a few minor changes have been introduced:

Kiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock:

     The Pueblo Indians in New Mexico are being considered at length under the following heads: Jemez, Keresan Pueblos, Piro Pueblos, Tewa Pueblos, Tiwa Pueblos, and Zuni; the Hopi are considered under Arizona. (See also Colorado, Nevada, and Texas.)

     Connection in which they have become noted. The Pueblo Indians have become famous from the fact that, unlike all of their neighbors, they lived in communal stone houses and in stone dwellings perched along the canyon walls; from their peculiar customs and ceremonies, such as the Snake Dance; and from their real and supposed connection with the builders of the stone ruins with which their country and neighboring parts of the Southwest abound. In recent years they have been subjects of interest to artists and writers and an attempt has been made to base a style of architecture upon the type of their dwellings. They are of historic interest as occupants of one of the two sections of the United States first colonized by Europeans.

Shuman. The Shuman lived at various times in or near the southern and eastern borders of New Mexico. (See Texas.)

Tewa Pueblos (See Tewa Pueblos)

Tiwa Pueblos. The name Tiwa is from Ti'wan, pl. Tiwesh', their own name. Also spelled Tebas, Tigua, Tiguex, Tihuas, Chiguas. Also called:
   E-nagh-magh, a name given by Lane (in Schoolcraft, 1851—57) to the language of "Taos, Picuris, Tesuqua, Sandia," etc.

     Connections. The Tiwa Pueblos are a division of the Tanoan linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.

     Location and Subdivisions. The Tiwa Pueblos formed three geographic divisions, one occupying Taos and Picuris (the most northerly of the New Mexican Pueblos), on the upper waters of the Rio Grande; another inhabiting Sandia and Isleta, north and south of Albuquerque respectively; and the third living in the pueblos of Isleta del Sur and Senecu del Sur, near El Paso, Tex., in Texas and Chihuahua, Mexico, respectively.

Towns and Villages
(As far as known)

The following pueblos now extinct were probably also Tiwa:
Locations known:

     History. The first two Tiwa divisions above mentioned occupied the same positions when Coronado encountered the Tiwa in 1540-42. Relations between his followers and the Indians soon became hostile and resulted in the capture of two pueblos by his army. In 1581 three missionaries were sent to the Tiwa under an escort but all were killed as soon as the escort was withdrawn. In 1583 Espejo approached Puaray, which Coronado had attacked, but the Indians fled. Castano de Sosa visited the Tiwa in 1591 and Onate in 1598. Missionary work was begun among them early in the seventeenth century, and the Indians were withdrawn progressively until only four pueblos were occupied by them at the time of the great rebellion of 1680, in which they took part. In 1681 Governor Otermin stormed Isleta and captured 500 Indians most of whom he settled near El Paso. Part of the Isleta fled to the Hopi country and remained there until 1709 or 1718, when the people of Isleta returned and reestablished their town. The Sandia Indians, however, remained away until 1742, when they were brought back by some missionaries and settled in a new pueblo near their former one. Since then there have been few" disturbances of importance, but the population until very lately slowly declined.

     Population. In 1680 there were said to be 12,200 Tiwa; in 1760, 1,428 were reported; in 1790-93, 1,486; in 1805, 1,491; in 1850, 1,575; in 1860, 1,163; in 1871, 1,478; in 1901-5, 1,613; in 1910, 1,650; in 1937, 2,122. (See Tewa Pueblos.)

Ute. The Ute were close to the northern border of New Mexico, extending across it at times and frequently raiding the tribes of the region and the later white settlements. (See Utah.)

Zuñi (See Zuñi)

Additional New Mexico Indian Resources

• Keresan Indian Pueblos

• Navaho Indian History

• Tewa Indian History

• Zuñi Indian History

• The Indian Tribes of North America

• Indian Missions of New Mexico and Arizona

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