While we know our northern friends may not feel it, in the South, Spring is
here. So we thought we'd share a few of our gardening sites appropriate
for this time of the year. Along with gardening, there's grilling, and getting
ready to diet so that you can fit back into that bathing suit this summer!
Exchange of Media. Before the arrival of Europeans
intertribal trade had resulted almost everywhere in America in the adoption of
certain standards of value of which the most important were shell beads and
skins. The shell currency of the Atlantic coast consisted of small white and
black or purplish beads cut from the valves of quahog and other shells and
familiarly known as wampum, q. v. These were very convenient, as they could be
strung together in quantities and carried any distance for purposes of trade, in
this respect having a decided advantage over skins. In exchange two white beads
w r ere equivalent to one black one. During the early colonial period wampum was
almost the only currency among white people as well; but inferior, poorly
finished kinds, made not only out of shell, but of stone, bone, glass, horn, and
even wood, were soon introduced, and in spite of all attempted regulation the
value of wampum dropped continually until in 1661 it was declared to be legal
tender no longer in Massachusetts, and a year or two later the same fate
overtook it in the other New England colonies. In New York it appears to have
held on longer, its latest recorded use as currency being in 1693. Holm says,
speaking of the Delawares of New Jersey: "In trade they measure those strings
[of wampum] by their length," each fathom of them being worth 5 Dutch guilders,
reckoning 4 beads for every stiver. The brown beads are more valued than the
others and fetch a higher price; a white bead is of the value of a piece of
copper money, but a brown one is worth a piece of silver." Holm quotes another
authority, however, to the effect that a white bead was worth one stiver and a
black bead two. The latter says also that "their manner of measuring the strings
is by the length of their thumbs; from the end of the nail to the first joint
makes 6 beads."
On the Pacific coast between s. E. Alaska and N. California shell currency of
another kind was employed. This was made from the Dentalium pretiosum
(money tooth-shell), a slender univalve found on the w. coasts of Vancouver and
Queen Charlotte ids. In the Chinook jargon it was called hiaqua. The
principal place where it was obtained is said to have been the territory of a
Nootka tribe, the Ehatisaht, in Esperanza inlet, w. coast of Vancouver id., but
it was collected as far N. as Quatsino inlet. The method of procuring it is
described in one of the earliest accounts of this region, the Narrative of John
Jewitt. According to Boas, a block of cedar w r as split up at one end so that
it formed a kind of brush which opened when pushed down into the water and
closed when pulled up, thus entangling the shells. These shells were valued in
proportion to their individual lengths. In w. Washington the standard of value
was 40 to the fathom, and the value fell off rapidly above that number, while
very long single shells were worth more than a dollar. A fathom of 40 was
formerly equivalent to a slave, according to Gibbs, and in his time would bring
5. In California and on the plateaus farther N. the shells had incised designs.
Among the Hupa of California they are decorated by being wrapped spirally with
fish skin or snake skin, and in addition usually bear a tuft of red feathers,
probably from the woodpecker s crest. The following further description of these
is given by Goddard:
"The individual shells are measured and their value determined by the creases on
the left hand. The longest known shells were about 2| in. long. One of them
would reach from the crease of the last joint of the little finger to the crease
on the palm opposite the knuckle joint of the same finger. The value of such a
piece in early days was about $5. Shells of this length were called dikñet.
The next smaller shells were called kike-tûkûtxoi, and measured about 2½
in. They were worth about $1.50 each. A shell about 1⅛
in. long was called tcwõlahit. Their value was from 25 to 50 cents. Shells
smaller than these were not rated as money and had no decoration. The length of
the shells smaller than the first mentioned was determined by applying them to
the creases of the middle and other fingers of the left hand.
"This money was strung on strings which reached from the thumb nail to the point
of the shoulder. Eleven of the largest size filled such a string and was
therefore called mōanala. Twelve shells of
the next smaller size composed a string and were called mōananax.
Thirteen shells are called mōanatak, and 14
of the smallest shells, called mōanadiñk,
was the largest number placed on a string. These strings are approximately 25
in. long. This, as it appears, was the least common multiple of the individual
standard lengths.
Since all hands and arms are not of the same length, it was necessary for the
man, when he reached his maturity, to establish the values of the creases on his
hand by comparison with money of known length as measured by someone else. He
also had a set of lines tattooed on the inside of the left forearm. These lines
indicated the length of 5 shells of the several standards. The measures were
subdivided, there being lines of mōanala
long and mōanala short, and so on. This was
the principal method of estimating the money. The first 5 on the string were
measured by holding the tip of the first shell at the thumb nail and drawing the
string along the arm and noting the tattooed mark reached by the butt of the
fifth shell. In like manner the last and intermediate sets of 5 were measured."
This shell money was carried in special elk-horn boxes.
Among the coast tribes N. of Vancouver id., dentalia were not so much in vogue,
but were used for ornamental purposes and in trade with the interior Indians.
The standard of value among the Kutchakutchin and neighboring tribes consisted
of lines of beads 7 ft long joined together at the distance of a foot, and
called naki eik (bead clothing). The whole naki eik, according to
Jones, "is equal to 24 made beaver, and one of the lines is one or more beaver
skins, according to the value of the beads."
In central and s. California circular, disk-shaped shell beads were used. Among
the Maidu they were counted instead of being measured in strings, al though for
each 10 beads a stick was laid down as a counter (Dixon). Ac cording to Powers
the Miwok rated shell beads at $5 a yard, while the Yokuts valued a string
reaching from the point of the middle finger to the elbow at 25 cents. These
latter sometimes strung with them a section of bone very white and polished,
about 2½ in. long, which they rated at 12½
cents. The Miwok strung together other shells which Powers believed to be
olivella, valuing them at $1 a yard, as well as fancy marine shells, rated from
$3 to $10 or $15 a yard, ac cording to their beauty.
So far inland were these shells carried that dentalia were found among the
Dakota, and it is probable that shells from both the Atlantic and the Pacific
reached the same tribes.
A more usual standard of value among interior people, however, was the pelt,
especially the skin of the beaver. Even on the Atlantic coast it w r as used
from the very earliest times side by side with wampum, and in 1613 the statement
is made that it was the basis of all trade between the French of Canada and the
Indians. In 1670 (Margry, Dec.1, 164, 1878) it is learned that a beaver
skin was worth a fathom of tobacco, a fourth of a pound of powder, 6 knives, or
a portion of little blue beads. According to Hunter it was also the standard of
value among the Osage, Kansa, Oto, Omaha, and their neighbors. He adds that 2
good otter skins, from 10 to 12 raccoon, or 4 or 5 wildcat skins were valued at
one beaver skin. Here this standard passed out very rapidly with the coming of
white men; but in the great fur regions of Canada it remained the basis of value
first between French and Indians, and after ward between English and Indians. Up
to the present time everything is valued in "skins," meaning beaver skins, but
the term has come to have a fixed value of 50 cents in Canadian money.
In former days, before the arrival of the Russians, the unit of value among the
Eskimo of the lower Yukon was a full grown land-otter skin, to which was
equivalent the skin of the large hair seal. This has now given place to the
beaver; and all other skins, furs, and articles of trade are sold as "a skin"
and multiples and fractions of "a skin." "In addition to this," says Nelson,
"certain small, untanned skins, used for making fur coats or blouses, are tied
in lots sufficient to make a coat, and are sold in this way. It requires 4 skins
of reindeer fawns, or 40 skins of Parry s marmot or of the muskrat for a coat,
and these sets are know r n by terms designating these bunches." The pelt of a
wolf or wolverine is worth several "skins" in trade, while a number of pelts of
muskrats or Parry s marmot are required to make the value of "a skin."
Among the northern tribes in the N. Pacific coast area, where dentalia were not
so much valued, elk and moose skins seem formerly to have constituted one of the
standards of value, although the skins of other animals were no doubt used to
some extent as well. In later times all these were replaced by blankets
introduced by the Hudson s Bay Company, which were distinguished by points or
marks on the edge, woven into their texture, the best being 4-point, the
smallest and poorest 1-point. The acknowledged unit of value, at least among the
Haida, was a single 2½-point blanket, worth in 1880 a little more than $1.50,
but on the coast farther s. it is now rated at about 50 cents. Everything was
referred to this unit, according to Dawson, even a large 4-point blanket being
said to be worth so many "blankets."
Another standard universal in this region was slaves and perhaps the remark able
copper plates should also be mentioned, though strictly speaking they were legal
tender of varying value which had to be fixed by means of some other standard,
such as blankets or slaves. Pieces of cedar bark prepared for roofing sometimes
appear as units of value also.
By the interior Salish of British Columbia Indian hemp bark was put up in
bundles about 2 ft long and 2 in. in diameter, and tied at both ends, and 6 of
these bundles constituted a "package," while dried salmon was generally sold by
the "stick," each stick numbering 100 fish (Teti).
In addition to their dentalia the Hupa and the peoples of Klamath r., in N.
California, use scalps of woodpeckers. They employ those of both the pileated
and smaller woodpecker for this purpose, the present exchange values of which
are now $l and 10 cents, respectively (Goddard). According to Bourke, eagle
feathers were an article of commerce with a determinate value among the Pueblo
Indians. The Mandan standards were skin corn measures of different dimensions
which were kept in the council lodge; and the Arikara measure was a stone
mortar. In later years an important unit of value on the great plains was the
horse.
The standards among the Hopi and probably other Pueblo tribes were a kind of
basket tray, a fixed variety of blue blanket, and turquoise and shell beads.
On the Pacific coast canoes were valued according to the length in fathoms, but
among the Hupa, where the length is constant, by their height and breadth, the
natives providing themselves with marks on their legs forth is particular
purpose. Many other long articles seem to have been appraised in the same
manner.
Although including the more prominent
standards, the foregoing list by no means
exhausts their number, for where articles of
various kinds were continually bartered,
numerous standards of a more or less
evanescent nature arose. For a list of
comparative valuations in one tribe see
Teit, cited below, p. 260. See Bead-work,
Commerce, Fur-trade, Horses, Measurements,
Shellwork, Wampum.
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includes some historical materials that may imply negative stereotypes
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Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, Frederick Webb Hodge, 1906
