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The Santee Normal Training School and Indian
Missions
Running Antelope, an Indian chief,
describing the condition of the Indians, said: "There was
once a beautiful, clear lake of water, full of fish. The
fish were happy and content, had plenty to eat, and nothing
to trouble them. One day a man came and threw in a lump of
mud, which frightened the fishes much and disturbed the
water. Another day a man came again, and threw in some more
mud, and even again and again, until the water became so
thick that the fish could not see at all; they were so
blinded and so frightened that they ran against one another,
and they ran their noses out of the water into the mud,
where many of them died. In fact, they are in a bad
condition, indeed. Now, the pond is the Indian country, the
fishes are the Indians, the false treaties and promises of
the white men are the lumps of mud," and, turning to the
missionaries, he said: "I hope you have come to clear up the
water." A glance at the work of the A.M.A. among the Indians
will show that the missionaries are clearing up the water.
We all have heard of the Santee Normal Training School for
Indians, in Nebraska. There is much in the name itself, and
yet it is impossible to have a clear idea of the work done
there unless one has seen for himself.
The Santee School is the largest of all the Indian mission
schools under the A.M.A., and faithfully has she performed
the part of a leader. The number of Indians gathered and
instructed each year is in the neighborhood of 175. Many
tribes are represented, and the students come from all
directions. They are thoroughly trained from the very
foundation, not only in the ordinary branches of school
work, but also in housekeeping—sewing, cooking, washing,
etc.,—on the part of the girls (in which, too, the boys join
largely), and in farming, carpentry, blacksmithing and
shoemaking, on the part of the boys.
Not only is this solid practical knowledge given them, but
care and time is devoted toward grace and politeness, and
all the foundation rules of etiquette. And this is not a
thankless work. Anyone forming an idea of Indians from those
at Santee would tell you they are naturally a most polite
people—a people upon whom grace sits easily. There is many a
little story of Santee I would like to tell, that would show
the spirit which pervades the school. Something you may have
read of their impromptu prayer-meetings, and the desire of
many to work and study, not merely for themselves, but for
their people.
But great as is the credit due the Indians for their
advancement here, little could be seen of gain were it not
that the corps of teachers sent out by the A.M.A. have been
chosen, not from the lame, the halt and the blind of this
country, not from those who for support must resort to
something, but from those young women who are willing to
leave homes of comfort and refinement, in order that their
lives may be worth something in the world—young women who
are consecrated beyond what we can even imagine until we
have seen the difficulties and annoyances which form so
large a part of their lives. Not for support would these
women have gone into A.M.A. work, but cheerfully and gladly
do they live on the very smallest possible salaries, that
more may be done for the Indian.
In describing Santee I have described all the schools, for
the same plan is carried out everywhere—the plan of
Christianization; for that must needs come before
civilization can be hoped for.
The Indian is not civilized who, forsaking his heathen gods,
has learned the ways of the white man without knowing his
God; for invariably he learns the vices and the crimes; and
is in reality more of a heathen than before.
Many are the villages of Indians in which the white man's
dance has been introduced and is enjoyed much more than the
native dance; it is working much evil which is hard to
uproot, for they say, "Is it not the white man's way?—it
must needs be all right."
The work among the older people is of course more limited
than that done in the schools. The age of study is with them
past. The most intellectual work of which they are capable
is learning to read the Bible; even this they cannot do in
any other than the Dakota language. It is impossible to
teach an old man English that will ever mean much to him.
Our word "holy" could never mean what his own word "wakan"
means; our word "God" could never take the place of his "Wakantanka."
His brain would be so disturbed in his effort to learn and
to comprehend our difficult language, that when he had
mastered the words, were it possible, the sweet truth and
the comfort would be all gone from him. Any but a scholar
must read the Bible in his own language.
Thousands of Indians are learning Bible truths and are
getting a little light in the few years left them. They are
learning a little of the way of life, and receive the
message with gladness. Spotted Bear, a Christian Indian,
said at the recent convention at Santee: "All we know we
have learned out of the Dakota Bible. Teach our children
English, but don't take from them and us the means of
reading our own Bible."
James Garvey, another Indian, said: "Many can soon learn to
read the Dakota Bible; then they have a standard of morals
and of interpretation; for to get the real meaning of the
English Bible, we go to the Dakota. To make the best
citizens you must Christianize the people, and to make them
Christians you must give them the Bible in their own tongue.
All of us have become white people through the gospel."
The little native churches of Dakota are most interesting
illustrations of the work going on among the Indians. It
would be impossible to find more attentive audiences. There
is always an air of devotion, or of serious attention to all
that pertains to the service, which we are not apt to find
in our own churches. Men, women and children go; even the
babies are always taken. There is a quiet freedom there
which allows the Indian mothers to take the babies out and
in again at any time, and the preacher is never disturbed.
They sing as if they enjoyed singing—men and women together;
and in fact the services are usually such as to give one a
new zeal in holy things, even though we can understand few
words.
Each Indian church has its missionary society, and its
woman's society, which is also missionary. These have been
working and giving for mission work further out among the
Indians, and this year have pledged themselves to give to
foreign missions. During the last year they have raised
$1,084, of which the women raised $500. The prayer-meeting
is as much an institution with them as with us—in fact, they
live as we live and work as we work.
Ehnamani, pastor of the Santee church—a fine old man, whose
history in connection with the Minnesota massacre of '62,
and whose conversion and present work are well known—was
once asked, "Do you ever have the least regret that the old
life is gone—do you ever have any longing for the war and
for the dance?" His face grew stern and hard as he answered,
"Regret it! No, indeed! I cannot think of one good thing
that I ever did in that life, and I cannot bear to remember
it." Few are there yet like Ehnamani, though many are fast
overtaking him, and a grand number of Christian workers
would you see could they be gathered before you!
Many are the Indian hearts given back to God their Creator.
Many are the Indian homes consecrated to the Wakantanka.
Many are the Indian lives devoted to His service. And yet
there are facts—there are overwhelming facts, sad enough to
break the great, throbbing Christian heart of this
country—facts that should make us cover our heads with
shame.
Out of 40,000 Sioux Indians, there are 35,000 still in
heathenism. There are sixty-six tribes on the Western
prairies for whom nothing is yet done. There are 40,000
Indians of school age; but when every school is packed to
its utmost only 12,000 can be accommodated. This includes
Government schools, Roman Catholic schools, and all; so that
those under mission teachers would be far less a number than
12,000.
And this is where the Indian work stands today. How can the
A.M.A. do its share in this great work, or how can the work
already begun be carried on, unless money is turned
liberally into its treasury?
Shall the cry for help, coming 1,500 miles across the
country, strike against a hard wall of indifference and be
thrown back to mock the red man and to bid him wait yet
longer? The Fourth
Brother
I believe that if the Master were visibly
present with us to-day, and we should ask,
"Where shall we go first with the Gospel?"
he would say, "Go to that fourth brother,
the North American Indian;" and for the
strongest reasons.
First, because he is in the greatest need.
There are no people in want whose cry does
not at once reach the heart of the American
people. When Chicago was burned, when there
was an earthquake in Charleston, when there
was a famine in Ireland, public sympathy was
immediately awakened, and all that was
needed was sent. The only people who seem to
be in need and do not receive help are the
aborigines of our soil—the people whom we
have dispossessed; whom we have crowded from
their homes; whom we have shut into
reservations until they are nothing but
prisoners of war; whom we have placed under
the control of a despot called an Indian
agent, who is not controlled by law, who on
that agency governs by his own will, with no
courts to protect those who are wronged.
These Indians are shut in on these
reservations, kept from all civilizing and
Christianizing influences, kept from trade
and commerce. A trader is appointed over
them, from whom they must buy everything
they need, paying whatever he may ask, to
whom they must sell everything that they
would sell, taking what he may choose to
give.
We have, it is true, a cumbrous system of
machinery which is supposed to educate and
civilize the Indian, called the Indian
Bureau. Some men have studied it for years,
and they fail yet to comprehend it. I
believe it is incomprehensible. I believe it
was never intended to be understood. Some
men ask what it does. It does little, and
largely shows how not to do; and any effort
to Christianize and elevate the Indians, so
long as the present system remains, will be
a failure. Now, when our philanthropists are
endeavoring to lift them up, when our
legislators are taking favorable action,
this Indian Bureau, through its Assistant
Commissioner, issues an order which says
that the English language must be the only
language taught or spoken in the
mission-schools. The only language the
Indian knows is forbidden. Suppose we were
to try to learn a foreign language in that
way? Suppose a Frenchman should come to
teach us French, and neither of us spoke a
word of English—how rapid would our progress
be?
Thirty barrels of whiskey and one thousand
scalping knives were issued not many years
ago as civilizing agencies by this
department. An instance given us last night
by our friend from across the water, shows
that the English circumlocution office is a
greyhound compared with our Indian office. I
remember a similar story that Bright Eyes
told in Boston some years ago.
She was then a teacher in an Indian school.
She had little children in her school that
came some seven, eight, or ten miles
barefooted, and winter was coming on, and
her heart sympathized with these poor
children who came so far to be taught. They
happened to have a good agent, and he said,
"Send an order for shoes for these
children;" and she sent an order, with a
request that they send the shoes, as they
were really needed, on account of the frost
and snow. The order went to Washington, went
through the regular routine, and the next
spring, after winter had passed, a case of
shoes came for these little Indian children.
When it was opened, she found it full of
brogans, that had been made for the Southern
negro in the rice-fields; and every shoe in
that case was so large that there was not an
adult Indian on the reservation that could
wear it. That is how the Indian Bureau
provides for the little Indian children when
there is a case of special necessity.
(Laughter.)
I could mention numerous illustrations
showing that it is impossible to do any work
that is required immediately, through this
Indian Bureau. If people are starving, you
cannot get food for them until they die.
Now, what is the remedy? I believe that
Christianity is the only remedy—the only
solution of the Indian question. Where they
have had good Christian agents—and they have
had some—where they have missionaries, the
Indian has made wonderful progress. I think
we can point to a few civilized and
Christianized communities among the Indians
that can find no parallel among the whites
of the country. There is less crime, less
immorality, more faithfulness to the
requirements of the Christian religion and
better observance of the Sabbath, more
sincerity and earnestness in the performance
of every Christian duty, than we can find in
the same number of whites anywhere. At
Metlakatla, as told by Mr. Duncan, the
Indians now form a community of twelve
hundred people, who have their churches,
their stores, their town-halls. They live in
houses, like other people; they appear like
civilized people; they carry on all the
vocations of civilized life; and all this
has been done by the work of one man. There
is no liquor-drinking or liquor-selling
there. A majority of this twelve hundred
people are earnest, faithful, consistent
Christians. They get no help from the
Government. They have built up and support
their churches. Where can you see anything
among the whites that equals it?
Then there is another reason why we should
go to them with the gospel of Christ. It is
a good thing to engage in works of charity
and benevolence, but before we do this we
should pay our debts. We owe so much to the
Indians of this country, that I think before
we go anywhere else we should do something
to atone for the years of wrong, for the
centuries of injury, that they have suffered
at our hands. We have taken their homes from
them. We have driven them from reservation
to reservation. We have taken their crops
when almost ready to reap. We have removed
them into climates where they have died by
hundreds. We {10} have not listened to their
cries. We have on various trumped-up charges
frequently slaughtered these people, and
treated them in the most cruel manner. There
is no question that I know of that so holds
a man, once interested, and so grows upon
him, as this Indian question.
I was first interested in this subject about
ten years ago in the city of Boston, where
Bright Eyes, Mr. Tibbles, and old Standing
Bear came to tell of the wrongs of the
Ponca. They were to hold a public meeting.
Wendell Phillips was to speak. I went to
that meeting more with a desire to hear
Phillips than from any interest in the
Indian. At that time all I knew about him
was what I had learned from the current
literature and romance, and my idea was very
far from correct. At that meeting a state of
affairs was shown to exist that seemed
astounding and impossible. A committee was
appointed to investigate these statements.
They found that the half had not been told.
That committee started measures that
rectified these wrongs done to the Ponca. It
commenced suit under the Fourteenth
Amendment to see whether the Indians were
citizens. The Judges of the Supreme Court
decided that the Indian was not a person
under the law. Then it tried other channels;
to get legislation that would help the
Indian. Senator Dawes soon became interested
in this question, and from that time to the
present he has been interested; and how much
the Indian owes to the legislation which has
been started and carried forward by Senator
Dawes, but very few people know; but it must
be followed by other legislation before the
Indian is safe.
In Boston, Mrs. H.H. Jackson listened to the
statement of Bright Eyes in regard to the
wrongs suffered by her people. She came to
her and said, "It is not possible that these
things can be true." Bright Eyes showed her
the official documents; she convinced her
that it was true. From that hour that
woman's whole soul was in the work. She
afterwards wrote "A Century of Dishonor,"
and "Ramona," which has preached for the
Indians, and will continue to do so. She
gave her life finally for the Indians, the
sickness that caused her death being brought
on while engaged in work for them. This work
gets hold of a man, if he has any blood in
his veins and sympathy in his heart, and
makes him feel, if he would stand without
condemnation before God in the last day,
that he must do something to redeem his
country from dishonor, and deliver this
people from worse than slavery.
Suppose we do not do it. Suppose we allow
the Government to care for them. The Dawes
Bill gives them citizenship, but what does
the Indian get? One hundred and sixty acres
of land—and he as naked as a babe on that
land. He has had no training in education
and systematic work of any kind; he has no
tools—and if he had he would not know how to
use them. He is in the midst of white
enemies, who want his land. He has turned
his back upon all the traditions of his
ancestors. He has turned his face toward the
whites, and his friends of the past are now
his enemies. He is in the midst of his
reservation. His homestead is his own, yet
no American citizen has a right there. If
you and I go to teach him, we can be ordered
off by the agent; and if we do not go he can
put us in prison.
If we do not give protection and
Christianity to them, there is no hope for
these Indians. Their fate will be the same
as Indians on the reservation in the State
of New York, who have been for one hundred
years in the midst of our best civilization,
but are still lazy and shiftless, their
reservation being permeated through and
through with unmentionable vices. They have
no interest in the civilization of the
present. They are living in the past,
dreaming over the glory of their ancestors.
They cannot be reached through civilization
without religion. To an Indian there is
nothing secular. Everything pertains to his
religion. When he goes on a hunt, if he has
no success, it is because the gods are
opposed to him; and if he is successful, the
gods were in it. When we go to an Indian and
seek to change him, we must first change his
gods. We must Christianize him if we would
civilize him. There is where many of our
experiments have been wrong.
Is it not laid upon us, who know something
of this work, to do this? I believe if we
will not do it, that in the last great day,
as we stand with the Indian before the
judgment bar of God, our position will be
worse than that of the Indian. It seems to
me that I can hear what the Judge would say
to him at that time. The Indian comes before
God, a pagan from a Christian land; he comes
having improved none of the powers that God
gave him. The Lord might say to him: "Did I
not give you as good opportunities and as
good capacities as the white man in whose
midst you were? This Christian nation is the
foremost for missions. It has sent to all
the lands of the earth, and yet here you
come a pagan, not knowing God, uncivilized,
a barbarian." Might not this Indian say: "I
was in prison. I was surrounded by a
reservation around whose outside lines were
the soldiers of the United States, and I
would be shot if I went off this
reservation. I had no business with which to
support myself; I had no chance for trade or
commerce; I had to buy of and sell to one
man. What opportunity had I? When an
occasional missionary came to me with the
gospel of Christ, I looked upon this man as
one of my enemies—a man from the nation that
had robbed me of my opportunities; and, my
Father, why should I listen to him,
especially when he spoke in a strange
language? Am I to blame that I come here
empty? Am I to blame that I must go away?" I
believe the Lord would turn to us and say,
"Inasmuch as ye have not done it to one of
the least of these my brethren, ye have not
done it unto Me." And, speaking for myself
alone, I would rather at that last day be in
the place of that darkened Indian—-savage,
barbarian, pagan, as he is—than in the place
of the Christian that knew of his need and
would not help him.
The Dakota
Missionary Society Its
annual meeting was held in connection with
the Dakota Conference, at the Santee Agency
and in the dining-room of the Normal and
Training School. There were two hundred
Indian sisters present, besides the white
lady teachers. They represented six mission
stations and twice as many churches, each
church having a wide awake woman's
missionary society. After a hymn, the
President, Mrs. Tasinasawin, led in prayer
and read the first three verses of the 21st
chapter of Luke, following it with a
few words about that widow's mite, saying
that it was not the amount given, but the
spirit in which it was given. That was the
important thing. The Indian women are able
to give but little, but if they give
willingly, as to the Lord, He will bless it.
The minutes were then read, and a new
president and secretary elected. Two
candidates were put in nomination for each
office. As the roll was called each woman
arose and voted viva voce. Mrs. Brascaw was
elected president, and Miss Mary C. Collins,
secretary. I was delighted to see the cheery
way in which these sisters-in-red did their
voting. There were several sallies of
laughter.
Then the delegates made each a report of the
work done in their societies and how much
money had been raised. One woman from the
Brown Earth Colony said: "We are poor, but
we are interested in the work and have done
what we could. Mr. Williamson taught me to
read, and when I was young he taught many
others to read. Now I am nearly blind but
still I have done what I could."
Another said: When the pastor's wife was
well she had helped them very much and had
taught them many things, but now she was
sick and could not attend many of their
meetings, but they worked on and did the
best they could.
Another said: "The gospel was sent to us
when we were in darkness, and now though we
are few and scattered far apart, yet we are
anxious to send the same gospel to those who
have not yet heard of it, and to help those
around us to love our Savior and to love
each other, and we give gladly of the little
that we have. It is not in our own strength
that we do this, but it is in God who helps
us."
It was found that the women had raised this
year over five hundred dollars. This goes
into the treasury of the Dakota Society to
help to sustain four native preachers, who
are also teachers, out among the wild
Indians. One of the services of the Sabbath,
the great day of the feast, was to hear from
those their own missionaries to the heathen.
At that meeting I counted five hundred and
thirty Christian Indians, who also partook
of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. To
help their treasury the women had a Fair for
the sale of articles of handiwork. The most
noted one was a quilt which had been made
and sent in by Caroline To-tee-doo-ta-win
(Scarlet House), of Brown Earth, now in her
97th year. She was one of the first three
converts who were organized into a church in
1834, at Lac-qui-parle, Minn. Her husband
had two wives, and she was the second.
Finding upon conversion that polygamy was
contrary to the ordinance of God she at once
proposed to be put away. She had been a
member of the Order of the Sacred Dance, but
this she renounced, throwing away her
"medicine sack," which by the medicine men
was regarded as a high crime. This subjected
her to divers persecutions, which she bore
patiently. There were times when all were
forbidden to attend worship at the mission.
Then she took joyfully to the spoiling of
her goods, the cutting up of her blanket,
she received the Sabbath as God's day, and
more than once remained behind her company
when they travelled on that day, making it
up on Monday. She learned from missionaries
to spin and knit, and weave garments for
herself and husband. At forty-five years of
age she learned to read her Dakota Bible,
and of her children she sent one to Ohio to
learn the ways of Christian white people.
She has adhered to the faith for these
fifty-four years. With her quilt she sent
the message that it was the last one she
could make. It was bought by Miss N. Hunter,
a teacher at the Yankton Agency, for four
dollars, to be presented to Rev. Dr. Arthur
Mitchell of the Presbyterian Board. It was
this Miss Hunter who interpreted for me the
addresses of the woman's meeting. Surely the
Apostle Paul would say of these, "Help those
women who labored with me in the Gospel." He
who was so fond of naming the Christians who
were "the first fruits of Achaia," would be
very loving to this aged disciple, the first
fruits of Dakota.
What An Indian
Thinks Of It
The writer of this letter is Loafer Redhorse,
a son-in-law of the Titon Chief, Swift Bear,
whose band have colonized as homesteaders
along the Niobrara River near the mouth of
Keya Paha River. Their colony is one hundred
and thirty miles from Rosebud Agency, to
which they belong. Their settlement we call
Burrell Station in honor of Dea. Burrell, of
Oberlin, Ohio, who gave the money to build
the school-house and home for the teacher.
Mr. Francis Frazier, son of Pastor Ehnamani
of Santee, has now been their teacher two
years.
Loafer Redhorse is anything but a loafer. He
is one of the most industrious men. He is
one who would naturally be first in war, as
he says, and now also is first in following
the plow, and learning the ways of the white
man. Among other things it is interesting to
know what he thinks of prohibiting the use
of the Dakota language.
MY FRIENDS: Let me speak now. I am sad
because of one thing which I will now speak
of. Since our school-house (the Burrell
station school) was built, I, with my
children, have attended with a glad heart
just as if it were my own. And now I hear
that it is likely to be closed, and I will
speak about that. And this is why I have
something to say. The scholars who go out
from the Brules to go to school, come back
without knowing anything, for the reason
that they don't teach them anything except
to work. That is the reason they don't know
anything, I think.
And I will tell how it was with us under
Indian customs since the time I had
understanding. Then the Indian tribes were
happy. Into whatever country was good they
roamed just as they pleased. At that time,
although there were many Indians on all
sides, there was a great country in between
full of buffalo. It seemed to be the
buffalo's country. And the Indian people
were made happy because of the buffalo. The
people would move their camps and pitch
their tents again and the buffalo would come
right in among their tents with a great
noise. Then it was that the people had great
joy.
And there was another thing that the people
rejoiced in greatly. I will speak of that
also. That was in war. When they went to war
and came near the enemies' dwellings and saw
the enemy there they would choose out about
ten of the bravest young men and dispatch
them to kill some of the enemy. Then they
would draw near to the houses, and soon
though there might be five whose hearts were
not able for it, the others would go on and
kill a man at his house. And the great joy
that I spoke of was thus: of the five who
had killed an enemy but only four of them
could take the glory, but their names would
be praised throughout the whole Indian
nation; they would be glorified and
considered as chiefs. But most of all, he
who first killed the enemy he would be the
chief. And then when they had returned home
even the women would rejoice greatly. They
would dance night and day, all of them. And
as I, myself, was chief, I considered this
the very greatest joy. Such were our
customs.
But now from the place I now occupy, I look
back and remember these things. And though
the Indian people had all of these customs,
I know not one of them that made the people
prosper or brought life to them. I have not
seen that brought life to the people. And
thus from where I am now, I am always
looking to the future. On this account I am
looking forward. The Indians have been told
the words of the Grandfather, (the
President). And they tell us that by these
words the people will prosper.
"Plant; by that you shall live," the
Grandfather told them. And now I know a
little that the Grandfather spoke the truth.
The Grandfather gives me food for six days,
but even though I eat a very little each
day, in three days I have eaten it all up.
But now I have raised corn and though I
abide here eating nothing else, by it I
live. And also to go from my place to where
the Grandfather gives me rations takes one
week to go and the same to come back and I
stay over a few days to rest when there, and
so it altogether covers over three weeks or
more. Therefore, though I have settled here
and desire to busy myself in all the white
man's ways that I am able, I have not yet
become independent. And therefore, I
earnestly wish, if it were possible, that
the Grandfather would enable us to receive a
year's rations at a time, and then we would
make speedy progress in the white man's way.
And because of this also, the children do
not advance much in their learning. For when
we go after the food they also go along. If
they should stay behind, food is scarce,
therefore they go along.
And now I hear it said that schooling in the
Dakota language is to be altogether stopped,
and on this account I am sad. For in the
school-house here they learn well and also
they pray. It is because they do these
things in the Dakota language that we have
been brought to understand them and to love
them, and gladly live in accordance with
them. Then also if it was all done (the
teaching and praying) by a white man we
would understand nothing about it, and so I
do not think it would be well.
And now this is the last thing I want to
say. The Grandfather has for his own the
Indians all over the land, and he always
helps them according to what may be for
their welfare. Now he is measuring off the
land for them, but I hear it said that he
measures it very, very small, and I am sad
about that. If only he would have mercy and
measure it off for them largely, that is
what I think. A good while ago the
Grandfather made a treaty with the Indians
and promised to give them three hundred and
twenty acres, and according to that I have
chosen my homestead and that suits me.
Therefore I prize the Grandfather's word and
measure myself by it. And thus I possess
myself and my children.
Although we are not many people here, yet I
always command them to give heed to the
words of the Grandfather. And I bear witness
to their constant attendance at the house
(the school and church) that stands here.
Although I am wholly an Indian, yet these
are my judgments and so I tell them. And I
write them in order that some may think
about the Indians. My friends, I wish you to
hear these words and so I write them. I
shake hands with a good heart.
This site includes some historical
materials that may imply negative stereotypes reflecting the culture or
language of a particular period or place. These items are presented as
part of the historical record and should not be interpreted to mean that
the WebMasters in any way endorse the stereotypes implied
.
This site includes some historical
materials that may imply negative stereotypes reflecting the culture or
language of a particular period or place. These items are presented as
part of the historical record and should not be interpreted to mean that
the WebMasters in any way endorse the stereotypes implied
.
American Missionary Association, 1888-1895
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