FootNote
The new kid on the block, FootNote is known for digitizing historical
documents... many of which are genealogical gems. With naturalizations,
city directories, war records, newspapers, town records, etc... this new
kid is quickly being recognized as an alternative to Ancestry.
While we know our northern friends may not feel it, in the South, Spring is
here. So we thought we'd share a few of our gardening sites appropriate
for this time of the year. Along with gardening, there's grilling, and getting
ready to diet so that you can fit back into that bathing suit this summer!
With commendable energy the newly organized
society set about the accomplishment of the task before it.
Plans were discussed during the summer, and in November two
agents, Samuel J. Mills and Ebenezer Burgess, sailed for
Africa to explore the western coast and select a suitable
spot. They were cordially received in England by the
officers of the African institution, and by Earl Bathurst,
secretary of state for the colonies, who provided them with
letters to Sierra Leone. Here they arrived in march, 1818,
and were hospitably received, every facility being afforded
them to prosecute their inquiries, though marked
unwillingness to have a foreign colony established in the
vicinity was not concealed. Their inspection was carried as
far south as Sherbro island, where they obtained promises
from the natives to sell land to the colonists on their
arrival with goods to pay for it. In may they embarked on
the return voyage. Mills died before reaching home. His
colleague made a most favorable report of the locality
selected, though, as the event proved, it was a most
unfortunate one.
After defraying the expenses of this exploration the
society's treasury was practically empty. It would have been
most difficult to raise the large sum necessary to equip and
send out a body of emigrants; and the whole enterprise would
have languished and perhaps died but for a new impelling
force. Monroe, who ever since his correspondence with
Jefferson in 1800, had pondered over "the vast and
interesting objects" which colonization might accomplish,
was now by an interesting chain of circumstances enabled to
render essential aid.
Though the importation of slaves had been strictly
prohibited by the act of congress of march 2, 1807, no
provision had been made for the care of the unfortunates
smuggled in in defiance of the statute. They became subject
to the laws of the state in which they were landed; and
these laws were in some cases so devised that it was
profitable for the dealer to land his cargo and incur the
penalty. The advertisements of the sale of such a cargo of
"recaptured Africans" by the state of Georgia drew the
attention of the society and of gen. Mercer in particular to
this inconsistent and abnormal state of affairs. His
profound indignation shows forth in the second annual report
of the society, in which the attention of the public is
earnestly drawn to the question; nor did he rest until a
bill was introduced into the house of representatives
designed to do away with the evil. This bill became a law on
march 3, 1819.
Provision was made for a more stringent suppression of the
slave trade: new cruisers were ordered and bounties awarded
for captures; but the clause which proved so important to
the embryo colony was that dealing with the captured
cargoes:
"the president of the united states is hereby authorized to
make such regulations and arrangements as he may deem
expedient for the safe keeping, support, and removal beyond
the limits of the united states, of all such negroes,
mulattoes, or persons of color as may be so delivered and
brought within their jurisdiction; and to appoint a proper
person or persons residing upon the coast of Africa as agent
or agents for receiving the negroes, mulattoes, or persons
of color, delivered from on board vessels seized in the
prosecution of the slave trade by commanders of the united
states armed vessels." The sum of $100,000 was appropriated
for carrying out the provisions of the act. President Monroe
determined to construe it as broadly as possible in aid of
the project of colonization. After giving congress, in his
message, December 20, 1818, fair notice of his intention, no
objection being made, he proceeded to appoint two agents,
the rev. Samuel bacon, already in the service of the
colonization society, and John P. Bankson as assistant, and
to charter the ship Elizabeth. The agents were instructed to
settle on the coast of Africa, with a tacit understanding
that the place should be that selected by the colonization
society; they were to provide accommodations sufficient for
three hundred, supplying provisions, clothing, tools, and
implements. It is important to note the essential part taken
by the government in the establishment of the colony, for
this is often said to be purely the result of private
enterprise; the inference tending to free the united states
from any responsibility for the protection of its feeble
offspring. It is true according to the letter, that the
government agency was separate from the colony: the agents
were instructed "to exercise no power founded on the
principle of colonization, or other principle than that of
performing benevolent offices;" and again, "you are not to
connect your agency with the views or plans of the
colonization society, with which, under the law, the
government of the united states has no concern," yet as a
matter of fact the agency and colony were practically
identical; and for years the resources of the government
were employed "to colonize recaptured Africans, to build
homes for them, to furnish them with farming utensils, to
pay instructors to teach them, to purchase ships for their
convenience, to build forts for their protection, to supply
them with arms and munitions of war, to enlist troops to
guard them, and to employ the army and navy in their
defense," these words of one unfriendly to the colony
forcibly show the extent to which our national government
was responsible for the experiment.
When the Elizabeth was chartered the society was notified
that the government agency was prepared to transport their
first colonists; or more literally "agreed to receive on
board such free blacks recommended by the society as might
be required for the purpose of the agency." For the expenses
of the expedition $33,000 was placed in the hands of Mr..
Bacon. Dr. Samuel a. Crozier was appointed by the society as
its agent and representative; and eighty-six negroes from
various states thirty-three men, eighteen women, and the
rest children, were embarked. On the 6th of February, 1820,
the mayflower of Liberia weighed anchor in New York harbor,
and, convoyed by the U.S. Sloop-of-war Cyane, steered her
course toward the shores of Africa. The pilgrims were kindly
treated by the authorities at Sierra Leone, where they
arrived on the ninth of march; but on proceeding to Sherbro
island they found the natives had reconsidered their
promise, and refused to sell them land. While delayed by
negotiations the injudicious nature of the site selected was
disastrously shown. The low marshy ground and the bad water
quickly bred the African fever, which soon carried off all
the agents and nearly a fourth of the emigrants. The rest,
weakened and disheartened were soon obliged to seek refuge
at Sierra Leone.
In march, 1821, a body of twenty-eight new emigrants under
charge of J.B. Winn and Ephraim bacon, reached Freetown in
the brig nautilus. Winn collected as many as he could of the
first company, also the stores sent out with them, and
settled the people in temporary quarters at Fourah Bay,
while bacon set out to explore the coast anew and secure
suitable territory. An elevated fertile and desirable tract
was at length discovered between 250 and 300 miles S.E. Of
Sierra Leone. This was the region of cape Montserado. It
seemed exactly suited to the purposes of the colonists, but
the natives refused to sell their land for fear of breaking
up the traffic in slaves; and the agent returned
discouraged. Winn soon died, and bacon returned to the
united states. In November, dr. Eli Ayres was sent over as
agent, and the U.S. Schooner alligator, commanded by
lieutenant Stockton, was ordered to the coast to assist in
obtaining a foothold for the colony. Cape Montserado was
again visited; and the address and firmness of lieutenant
Stockton accomplished the purchase of a valuable tract of
land.
The cape upon which the settlers proposed to build their
first habitations consists of a narrow peninsula or tongue
of land formed by the Montserado River, which separates it
from the mainland. Just within the mouth of the river lie
two small islands, containing together less than three
acres. To these, the Plymouth of Liberia, the colonists and
their goods were soon transported. But again the fickle
natives repented the bargain, and the settlers were long
confined to "perseverance island," as the spot was aptly
named. Space forbids entering on the interesting details of
the difficulties they successfully encountered. After a
number of thrilling experiences the emigrants, on April 25,
1822, formally took possession of the cape, where they had
erected rude houses for themselves; and from this moment we
may date the existence of the colony. Their supplies were by
this time sadly reduced; the natives were hostile and
treacherous; fever had played havoc with the colonists in
acclimating; and the incessant downpour of the rainy season
had set in. Dr. Ayres became thoroughly discouraged, and
proposed to lead them back to Sierra Leone. Then it was that
Elijah Johnson, an emigrant from New York, made himself
forever famous in Liberian history by declaring that he
would never desert the home he had found after two years'
weary quest! His firmness decided the wavering colonists;
the agents with a few faint hearted ones sailed off to
America; but the majority remained with their heroic negro
leader. The little band, deserted by their appointed
protectors, were soon reduced to the most dire distress, and
must have perished miserably but for the arrival of
unexpected relief. The united states government had at last
gotten hold of some ten liberated Africans, and had a chance
to make use of the agency established for them at so great
an expense. They were accordingly sent out in the brig
strong under the care of the Rev. Jehudi Ashmun. A quantity
of stores and some thirty-seven emigrants sent by the
colonization society completed the cargo. Ashmun had
received no commission as agent for the colony, and expected
to return on the strong; under this impression his wife had
accompanied him. But when he found the colonists in so
desperate a situation he nobly determined to remain with
them at any sacrifice. He visited the native chiefs and
found them, under cover of friendly promises, preparing for
a deadly assault on the little colony. There was no recourse
but to prepare for a vigorous defense. Twenty-seven men were
capable of bearing arms; and one brass and five iron
fieldpieces, all dismantled and rusty, formed his main hope.
Ashmun at once set to work, and with daily drills and
unremitting labor in clearing away the forest and throwing
up earthworks, succeeded at last in putting the settlement
in a reasonable state of defense. It was no easy task. The
fatiguing labor, incessant rains, and scanty food
predisposed them to the dreaded fever. Ashmun himself was
prostrated; his wife sank and died before his eyes; and soon
there was but one man in the colony who was not on the sick
list. At length the long expected assault was made. Just
before daybreak on the 11th of November the settlement was
approached by a body of over eight hundred African warriors.
Stealthily following the pickets as they returned a little
too early from their watch, the savages burst upon the
colony and with a rush captured the outworks. A desperate
conflict ensued, the issue of which hung doubtful until the
colonists succeeded in manning their brass field piece,
which was mounted upon a raised platform, and turning it
upon the dense ranks of the assailants. The effect at such
short range was terrible. "Every shot literally spent its
force in a solid mass of living human flesh. Their fire
suddenly terminated. A savage yell was raised, and the whole
host disappeared." the victory had been gained at a cost
of four killed and as many seriously wounded. Ammunition was
exhausted; food had given out. Another attack, for which the
natives were known to be preparing, could scarcely fail to
succeed. Before it was made, however, an English captain
touched at the cape and generously replenished their stores.
On the very next evening, November 30, the savages were seen
gathering in large numbers on the cape, and toward morning a
desperate attack was made on two sides at once. The lines
had been contracted, however, and all the guns manned, and
the well directed fire of the artillery again proved too
much for native valor. The savages were repulsed with great
loss. The unusual sound of a midnight cannonade attracted
the prince regent, an English colonial schooner laden with
military stores and having on board the celebrated traveler
captain Laing, through whose mediation the natives were
brought to agree to a peace most advantageous to the
colonists. When the prince regent sailed, midshipman Gordon,
with eleven British sailors volunteered to remain, to assist
the exhausted colonists and guarantee the truce. His
generosity met an ill requital; within a month he had fallen
victim to the climate with eight of the brave seamen.
Supplies were again running low, when march brought the
welcome arrival of the U.S. Ship Cyane. Captain R.T. Spence
at once turned his whole force to improving the condition of
the colonists. Buildings were erected, the dismantled
colonial schooner was raised and made sea worthy, and many
invaluable services were rendered, until at length a severe
outbreak of the fever among the crew compelled the vessel's
withdrawal. It was too late, however, to prevent the loss of
forty lives, including the lieutenant, Richard Dashiell, and
the surgeon, dr. Dix.
On the 24th of may, 1823, the brig Oswego arrived with
sixty-one new emigrants and a liberal supply of stores and
tools, in charge of dr. Ayres, who, already the
representative of the society, had now been appointed
government agent and surgeon. One of the first measures of
the new agent was to have the town surveyed and lots
distributed among the whole body of colonists. Many of the
older settlers found themselves dispossessed of the holdings
improved by their labor, and the colony was soon in a
ferment of excitement and insurrection. Dr. Ayres, finding
his health failing, judiciously betook himself to the united
states.
The arrival of the agent had placed Mr.. Ashmun in a false
position of the most mortifying character. It will be
remembered that in sympathy for the distress of the colony
he had assumed the position of agent without authority. In
the dire necessity of subsequent events he had been
compelled to purchase supplies and ammunition in the
society's name. He now found, himself superseded in
authority, his services and self sacrifice unappreciated,
his drafts[9] dishonored, his motives distrusted. Nothing
could show more strongly his devotion and self abnegation
than his action in the present crisis. Seeing the colony
again deserted by the agent and in a state of discontent and
confusion, he forgot his wrongs and remained at the helm.
Order was soon restored but the seeds of insubordination
remained. The arrival of 103 emigrants from Virginia on the
Cyrus, in February 1824, added to the difficulty, as the
stock of food was so low that the whole colony had to be put
on half rations. This necessary measure was regarded by the
disaffected as an act of tyranny on Ashman's part; and when
shortly after the complete prostration of his health
compelled him to withdraw to the Cape de Verde Islands, the
malcontents sent home letters charging him with all sorts of
abuse of power, and finally with desertion of his post! The
society in consternation applied to government for an
expedition of investigation, and the rev. R.R. Gurley,
secretary of the society, and an enthusiastic advocate of
colonization was dispatched in June on the U.S. Schooner
porpoise. The result of course revealed the probity,
integrity and good judgment of Mr.. Ashman; and Gurley
became thenceforth his warmest admirer. As a preventive of
future discontent a constitution was adopted at Mr..
Gurley's suggestion, giving for the first time a definite
share in the control of affairs to the colonists themselves.
Gurley brought with him the name of the colony Liberia, and
of its settlement on the Cape Monrovia, which had been
adopted by the society on the suggestion of Mr.. Robert
Goodloe Harper of Maryland. He returned from his successful
mission in august leaving the most cordial relations
established throughout the colony.
Gurley's visit seemed to mark the turning of the tide, and a
period of great prosperity now began. Relay after relay of
industrious emigrants arrived; new land was taken up;
successful agriculture removed all danger of future failure
of food supply; and a flourishing trade was built up at
Monrovia. Friendly relations were formed with the natives,
and their children taken for instruction into colonial
families and schools. New settlements were formed; churches
and schools appeared; an efficient militia was organized;
printing presses set up and hospitals erected. On every side
rapid progress was made. After years of illustrious service
Ashman retired to his home in new haven, where he died a few
days later, on august 25, 1828. Under dr. Richard Randall
and Dr. Mechlin, who successively filled his post, the
prosperity of the colony continued undiminished.
The decade after 1832 is marked by the independent action of
different state colonization societies. At first generally
organized as tributary to the main body, the state societies
now began to form distinct settlements at other points on
the coast. The Maryland society first started an important
settlement at Cape Palmas, of which we shall make a special
study. Bassa Cove was settled by the joint action of the New
York and Pennsylvania societies; Greenville, on the Sinou
River, by emigrants from Mississippi; and the Louisiana
society engaged in a similar enterprise. The separate
interests of the different settlements at length began in
many cases to engender animosity and bad feeling; the need
of general laws and supervision was everywhere apparent; and
a movement toward a federal union of the colonies was set on
foot. A plan was at length agreed upon by all except
Maryland, by which the colonies were united into the
"commonwealth of Liberia," whose government was controlled
by a board of directors composed of delegates from the state
societies. This board at its first meeting drew up a plan of
government, and Thomas Buchanan was appointed first governor
of the commonwealth, 1837. The advantages of the union were
soon apparent. The more aggressive native tribes with whom
not a little trouble had been experienced, were made to feel
the strength of the union; and many of the smaller head men
voluntarily put themselves under the protection of the
government, agreeing to become citizens, with all their
subjects, and submit to its laws. The traffic in slaves all
along the coast was checked, intertribal warfare prevented,
and trial by the Sassa-wood ordeal abolished wherever
colonial influence extended. Mr. Buchanan was the last white
man who exercised authority in Liberia. On his death the
lieutenant-governor, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, succeeded him.
Roberts, who afterward became Liberia's most distinguished
citizen, was a Virginia Negro, having been born at Norfolk
in 1809, and brought up near Petersburg. He obtained a
rudimentary education while running a flat boat on the James
and Appomattox rivers. In 1829 he went with his widowed
mother and younger brothers to Liberia, where he rapidly
rose to wealth and distinction. As governor he evinced an
efficient statesmanship that promised well for his future
career.
Roberts had not long been governor when trouble arose with
the British coast wise traders that gave rise to a most
interesting crisis. The Liberian government in regulating
commerce within its jurisdiction had enacted laws imposing
duties on all imported goods. The English traders,
accustomed for hundreds of years to unrestricted traffic on
this very coast, were indignant at the presumption of the
upstart colony, and ignored its regulations. The government
protested, but in vain. And at length the little colonial
revenue schooner John Seyes, while attempting to enforce the
laws at Edina, was actually seized by the stalwart Britisher
and dragged before the admiralty court at Sierra Leone. A
long discussion which would be profitless to follow in
detail, ensued. The result was, that the John Seyes was
confiscated. The British government opened a correspondence
with the united states, in which it was ascertained that
Liberia was not in political dependence upon them. Whereupon
the sovereignty of Liberia was promptly denied, her right to
acquire or hold territory questioned, and she was given to
understand that the operations of British traders would in
future be backed by the British navy.
Evidently if Liberia was to maintain and govern her
territory something must be done. The colonization society
while claiming for Liberia the right to exercise sovereign
powers, seems to have had the unacknowledged conviction,
that England's position, however ungenerous, was logically
unassailable. The supreme authority wielded by the society,
its veto power over legislative action, was undoubtedly
inconsistent with the idea of a sovereign state. This is
clearly apparent from the fact that though there was
pressing necessity for a treaty with England, neither the
colony nor the society had power to negotiate it. It was
accordingly determined to surrender all control over the
colony; and the "people of the commonwealth of Liberia" were
"advised" by the society "to undertake the whole work of
self government;" to make the necessary amendments to their
constitution, and to declare their full sovereignty to the
world.
The suggestion was adopted in Liberia by popular vote, and a
convention met on July 26, 1847, adopted a declaration of
independence and a new constitution, closely modeled on the
corresponding documents of the united states. In September
the constitution was ratified by vote of the people.
Governor Roberts was elected to the office of president,
upon which he entered January 3, 1848. His inaugural address
is one of remarkable interest, fitly proclaiming to the
world a new republic.
